Document on Biology of Rice - National Bureau of Plant Genetic ...

<strong>Document</strong> on Biology of Rice 

(Oryza sativa L.) in India 

Gurinder Jit Randhawa Desh Deepak Verma 

Shashi Bhalla Manoranjan Hota 

V. Celia Chalam 

Vandana Tyagi 

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources 

Indian Council of Agricultural Research 

New Delhi 

Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit 

Ministry of Environment and Forests 

New Delhi

Published in 2006 

© National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi 

Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit, 

Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi 

Copies can be obtained from : 

The Director 

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources 

Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, India 

Printed by : 

Alpha Lithographics Inc., New Delhi-110028 

Ph.: 9811199620, 41495131

PREFACE 

PREFACE

FOREWORD 

Under the GEF-World Bank funded project on Capacity Building for the 

Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, National Bureau of 

Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi in association with the Project 

Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of Environment and Forests, 

Government of India is bringing out <strong>Document</strong> on Biology of Rice 

(Oryza sativa L.) in India. This document is intended to provide an exhaustive 

information about the biology of rice in India, including its taxonomic status, 

botany, reproductive biology, cultivation, genetic diversity and pests which may 

be used as a tool by those tasked with assessing the environmental safety of 

transgenic rice that may be released into the environment. 

This document will surely serve as a useful reference for an effective 

and systematic risk assessment of transgenic rice in Indian conditions. 

(S. K. Sharma) 

FOREWORD

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Dr. G. S. 

Khush, Adjunct Professor, University of California, Davis, USA; Dr. E. A. Siddiq, 

Professor, Department of Biotechnology, ANGRAU, Hyderabad; Dr. S. D. 

Sharma, Former Head, Genetics Division, CRRI, Cuttack and Dr. Morven, 

President AGBIOS, Canada for reviewing this document. The contributions of 

Dr. R. K. Khetarpal, Head, Plant Quarantine Division, NBPGR for the chapter 

VIII on “Pests of rice” are especially acknowledged. Contribution of Dr. Sanjeev 

Saxena, Senior Scientist, Conservation Division, NBPGR for the chapter VII 

“Rice genetic diversity in India” was indeed very valuable. This document would 

not have been possible without the consistent support and guidance of Dr. B. 

S. Dhillon and Dr. J. L. Karihaloo, former Directors, NBPGR and coordinators 

of the project, which is gratefully acknowledged. The unstinted support, 

guidance and encouragement of Dr. S. K. Sharma, Director, NBPGR and 

Coordinator of the project in bringing out of this document is especially 

acknowledged. 

The special interest taken by Dr. Eija Pehu, Senior Adviser, Agricultural 

and Rural Development Department, the World Bank for bringing out this 

document is greatly acknowledged. 

The contributions of Dr. Monika Singh and Mr. Sridhar, Research 

Associates, of the project for bringing out this document are also acknowledged. 

I also gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support of the 

GEF- World Bank and Project Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of 

Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, for bringing out 

this important document. 

(Gurinder Jit Randhawa) 

Project Investigator

PROJECT DETAILS 

Title: GEF-World Bank aided Capacity Building Project for the Implementation 

of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in India 

Period: September 2004 to June 2007 

PROJECT DETAILS 

Source of Funding: World Bank and Project Coordinating and Monitroring Unit (PCMU), 

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi 

Team Members: Project Coordinators 

Dr. B. S. Dhillon, Former Director, NBPGR (upto 26 th July 2005) 

Dr. J. L. Karihaloo, Former Director, NBPGR (upto 31 st January 2006) 

Dr. S. K. Sharma, Director, NBPGR 

Principal Investigator 

Dr. Gurinder Jit Randhawa, Sr. Scientist, NRCDNFP, NBPGR 

Co-Principal Investigators 

Dr. Shashi Bhalla, Sr. Scientist, Division of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR 

Dr. V. Celia Chalam, Sr. Scientist, Division of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR 

Dr. Vandana Tyagi, Scientist (Sr. Scale), Germplasm Exchange Unit, NBPGR 

Objectives: 1. Development and standardization of diagnostic tools for detection of 

Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) and the traits expressed by them 

for the transgenic material under exchange 

2. Development of biology document for rice for centres of origin/diversity, 

its taxonomy, genetics, description of wild and weedy relatives, pests 

and diseases etc. 

3. Human Resource Development: To conduct training courses/workshops 

on Biosafety and hands on training on LMOs detection using Enzymelinked 

Immunsorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction 

(PCR)-based techniques.

CONTENTS 

CONTENTS 

SECTION I RICE AS A CROP PLANT 1 

SECTION II TAXONOMIC STATUS 2 

SECTION III CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY 3 

SECTION IV BOTANY OF RICE 4 

(a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza 

(b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of 

Morphological Characters 

SECTION V REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 8 

(a) Sexual Reproduction 

(b) Asexual Reproduction 

(c) Reproductive Barriers 

SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 11 

(a) Rice Growing Regions 

(b) Rice Ecosystems 

(c) Cropping Patterns 

SECTION VII RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 15 

(a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm 

(b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value 

(c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars 

(d) Exotic Germplasm 

(e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits 

(f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries 

(g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India 

SECTION VIII PESTS OF RICE 29 

SECTION IX STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA 64 

SECTION X REFERENCES 65 

PAGE

SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT 

SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT 

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the three major food crops of the world. Being grown worldwide, 

it is the staple food for more than one and a half of the world’s population. It is a nutritious cereal 

crop, provides 20 per cent of the calories and 15 per cent of protein consumed by world’s population. 

Besides being the chief source of carbohydrate and protein in Asia, it also provides minerals and 

fibre. Rice straw and bran are important animal feed in many countries. 

India is the largest rice growing country accounting for about one-third of the world acreage 

under the crop. It is grown in almost all the states of India, covering more than 30 per cent of the 

total cultivated area. Its cultivation is mostly concentrated in the river valleys, deltas and lowlying 

coastal areas of northeastern and southern India, especially in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, 

Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West 

Bengal, which together contribute about 97 per cent of the country’s rice production. Contributing 

about 42 per cent to country’s food grain production, rice not only forms the mainstay of diet for 

majority of its people (>55 per cent), but also is the livelihood for over 70 per cent of the population 

in the traditional rice growing regions (Figure 1). 

1

2 DOCUMENT SECTION II - ON TAXONOMIC BIOLOGY OF STATUS 

RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA 

SECTION II - TAXONOMIC STATUS 

Rice belongs to the genus: Oryza, family: Gramineae (Poaceae) and tribe: Oryzeae. The genus Oryza 

is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of the world (Table1). The genus consists of 23 

wild and weedy species and two cultivated species, viz., the Asian O. sativa and the African O. 

glaberrima. O. sativa, domesticated in Asia has now spread to almost all the rice growing areas of the 

world, while O. glaberrima, domesticated in western tropical Africa is confined to that part of the 

world alone. 

The basic chromosome number of the genus is n=12. The species are either diploid with 2n=24 

chromosomes or tetraploids with 2n=48 chromosomes. Based on genome analysis and degree of sexual 

compatibility, the species have been grouped under nine distinct genomes, viz., A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H 

and J and unclassified in five complexes, namely Sativa, Officinalis, Meyeriana, Ridleyi and Unclassified 

(Table 1). On the basis of crossability and ease of gene transfer, the primary genepool of rice is known 

to comprise the species of Sativa complex, while the species belonging to Officinalis complex constitute 

the secondary genepool. Crosses between O. sativa and the species of Officinalis complex can be 

accomplished through embryo rescue technique. The species belonging to Meyeriana, Ridleyi complexes 

and O. schlechteri constitute the tertiary genepool (Khush, 2000; Siddiq, 2000). 

Table 1: Species complex of the genus Oryza and their geographical distribution 

Species Complex 

I. Sativa complex 

Chromosome Number Genome Geographical Distribution 

O. sativa L. 24 AA South & Southeast Asia 

O. nivara Sharma et Shastry 24 AA Tropical Asia 

O. rufipogon Griff. 24 AA Tropical Asia 

O. meridionalis Ng 24 AA Tropical Australia 

O. glumaepetula Steud. 24 AA Tropical America 

O. glaberrima Steud. 24 AA Tropical West Africa 

O. barthii A. Chev. et Roehr. 24 AA West Africa 

O. longistaminata A. Chev. et Roehr. 

II. Officinalis Complex/ Latifolia complex 

24 AA Africa 

O. punctata Kotschy ex Steud. 24 BB Africa 

O. rhizomatis Vaughan 24 CC Sri Lanka 

O. minuta J.S.Pesl. ex C.B.Presl. 48 BBCC Philippines, New Guinea 

O. malamphuzensis Krishn. et Chandr. 48 BBCC South India (Kerala) 

O. officinalis Wall. ex Watt 24 CC Asia, New Guinea 

O. eichingeri A. Peter 24 CC East Africa & Sri Lanka 

O. latifolia Desv. 48 CCDD Central & South America 

O. alta Swallen 48 CCDD Central & South America 

O. grandiglumis (Doell) Prod. 48 CCDD South America 

O. australiensis Domin. 24 EE Northern Australia 

O. schweinfurthiana Prod. 

III. Meyeriana Complex 

48 BBCC Tropical Africa 

O. granulata Nees et Arn. ex Watt 24 GG South & Southeast Asia 

O. meyeriana (Zoll. et Mor. ex Steud.) Baill. 

IV. Ridleyi Complex 

24 GG Southeast Asia 

O. longiglumis Jansen 48 HHJJ Indonesia, New Guinea 

O. ridleyi Hook. f. 

V. Unclassified (belonging to no complex) 

48 HHJJ Southeast Asia 

O. brachyantha A. Chev. et Roehr. 24 FF West & Central Africa 

O. schlechteri Pilger 48 HHKK Indonesia, New Guinea 

Source: Brar and Khush, 2003

SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY 

Archaeological and historical evidence points to the foothills of Himalayas in the North and hills 

in the North-east of India to the mountain ranges of South-east Asia and South-west China as the 

primary centre of origin of Oryza sativa, and the delta of River Niger in Africa for that of O. 

glaberrima, the African rice. These areas are characterized by topological heterogeneity and are 

considered to be the centres of rice diversity. The diversity in these centres is being lost rapidly 

with many rice growers shifting to modern cultivars. 

The wild progenitors of O. sativa are the Asian common wild rices, which show wide variation 

ranging in their habit from perennial to annuals. These perennial and annual forms although were 

treated as a single species, viz., O. rufipogon by some biosystematists (Second, 1982; 1986). Now 

they are recognized as two distinct species, namely O. rufipogon and O. nivara, respectively 

(Chang 1985). O. sativa is considered to have been domesticated between 9000 and 7000 BC. 

Annual forms might have gradually developed in plateau regions of eastern India, South-east 

Asia and southern China. During the course of time, they differentiated into two ecogenetic groups: 

indica and japonica (temperate and tropical japonicas) (Chang, 1985). Schematic representation 

of evolutionary pathways of the Asian and African cultivated rices is shown in Figure 2. 

The wild progenitor of the African cultivar O. glaberrima is O. longistaminata endemic to 

West Africa. The primary centre of diversity for O. glaberrima is the swampy basin of Upper 

Niger. Now, O. sativa and O. glaberrima are grown as mixtures of varying proportions by West 

African farmers (Chang, 1976; Oka et al., 1978; Morishima and Oka, 1979). 

Wild 

perennial 

Wild 

annual 

Asian rice 

(South and South-west Asia) 

Cultivated 

annual 

Indica 

O. rufipogon 

(AA) 

O. nivara 

(AA) 

O. sativa 

(AA) 

Japonica 

SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY 

Common ancestor 

(O. perennis) 

Weedy 

annual races 

O. spontanea O. stapfii 

Temperate japonica 

Tropical japonica 

( Javanica) 

African rice 

(Tropical Africa) 

O. longistaminata 

(AA) 

O. barthii 

(AA g ) 

O. glaberrima 

(A g A g ) 

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the evolutionary pathways of Asian and African cultivated rices 

3

4 DOCUMENT SECTION IV - ON BOTANY BIOLOGY OF RICE 

OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA 

SECTION IV - BOTANY OF RICE 

The Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) and its allied taxa that occur in Asia present a continuous 

array of morphological features, so that the whole group has been termed as O. sativa complex by 

Tateoka (1962). The updated and comprehensive botany of rice has been reviewed by Nanda and 

Sharma (2003). 

(a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza 

Root system 

The root system is fairly well developed in all species of rice. In perennial rices, short underground 

shoots densely covered with sheathed leaves are present. Annual species have long but slightly 

branched adventitious roots whereas a main root and subterranean shoots are completely absent. 

Stalks 

Stalks are erect or ascending in all rices except in O. sativa where they are geniculately ascending, 

recumbent, rooting at the nodes and sometimes producing new shoots at these points. 

Leaf sheaths 

Leaf sheaths are always open and glabrous along the edge. In some of the species like O. 

grandiglumis, O. latifolia and O. officinalis, leaf sheaths may possess cilia. Like stalks, leaf sheaths 

also have a clearly marked or ribbed venation and become keel-like by the protrudation of the 

midvein in the upper part of the sheath beneath the leaf lamina. The leaf sheaths of all rices are 

grassy, smooth and firm in species living in meadows and woods, and have air passages in that 

part of sheath submerged in water in species inhabiting bogs. 

Auricles 

In all the species of rice except O. subulata, the leaf sheath, where it passes into the leaf lamina, 

ends in a small hollow with bent neck, glabrous or ciliated edges called auricle. 

Leaf lamina 

All rices can be divided into 2 groups according to the shape of lamina: 

Ø Those having linear-lanceolate leaves, i.e., in which the length of the leaf is so much greater 

than the width that they appear ribbon-like. e.g. O. sativa having long acicular linear leaves. 

Ø Those having a lanceolate-like or elongate-lanceolate shape, e.g. O. granulata and O. 

abromeitiana in which base of the leaf is so constricted that it appears as if it forms a petiole. 

Ligule 

The ligule is oblong or blunt and 1-5 mm long in most of the species. In O. latifolia, the ligule is 

short but breaks up at the apex into a row of hard, sometimes wooly hairs. 

Inflorescence 

In all rices a panicle with branches that branch 1-2, or with lower branches branching once but the


upper ones not branching at all that is, with an inflorescence constructed in the lower part as a 

panicle but in the upper part as a raceme. The shape of inflorescence also depends on the frequency 

of branching and for majority of rices is oblong or fusiform. In O. brachyantha, O. abromeitiana 

and O. granulata, it is almost linear with small spikelets, whereas in O. latifolia and O. 

grandiglumis, it is a wide panicle with many spikelets. Axis of inflorescence is ribbed in all 

species and appears to be composed of individual, coalescent branches. Branches of inflorescence 

occur on axis in 1-4 irregular whorls. Like the axis of inflorescence, the branches are also glabrous, 

smooth lower down but gradually become sharp scabrous in upper part. 

Pedicels of spikelets and lower empty glumes 

Pedicels of spikelets are short, 1-6 mm long and have distinct ridges on both sides ending in 

cyathiform enlargement consisting of two wide, about 0.5 mm long coalescent glumes, representing 

lower pair of empty glumes. Cyathiform enlargement of pedicel is mostly horizontal and attached 

to base of spikelet. In O. breviligulata, O. sativa and O. stapfii, pedicel is drawn out at its extreme 

apex so that the cup-shaped enlargement is placed almost vertically and attached somewhat laterally 

to base of the spikelet. 

Articulation 

Articulation is present in all rice species between lower and upper empty glumes. It is fairly 

distinct in most of the species because the spikelets fall easily on ripening of seeds. However, it is 

less distinct in the cultivated species O. sativa where during the ripening of fruits the spikelets do 

not drop off but remain on the branches. 

Spikelets 

Spikelets are always upright, orbicular or obliquely oblong, compressed from sides, with deep 

longitudinal grooves and blunt ribs. According to spikelet shapes, all rices can be divided into 3 

groups: 

Ø Rice with narrow spikelets, i.e., those in which the length is more than three times the breadth 

as in O. brachyantha, O. breviligulata, O. longistaminata, O. ridleyi, O. stapffi, O. subulata 

and O. coarctata. 

Ø Rice with orbicular spikelet, i.e., those in which the length is 2-2.5 times the breadth as in O. 

australiensis, O. glaberrima, O. latifolia, O. officinalis, O. punctata and O. sativa. 

Ø Rice with broad spikelets, i.e., those in which the length although greater than width is less 

than twice width, as in O. grandiglumis, O. minuta and O. schlechteri. 

Upper empty glumes 

Upper empty glumes are almost always distinct. They are: 

Ø linear or linear-lanceolate as in most rice species 

Ø subulate or setaceous as in O. brachyantha, O. coarctata, O. granulata, O. ridleyi, O. 

schelechteri and keel-shaped as in O. grandiglumis. 

Ø cyathiform as in O. subulata. 

5

6 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA 

Flowering glumes 

Flowering glumes are always leathery or hard-leathery with small traversely intersecting rows of 

small tubercles over entire surface. In all species, lower flowering glumes are compressed from 

the side, keel-shaped with 5 veins, in upper part terminating along the external edge in small 

beak, which is generally extended into a small point or long awn. Upper flowering glume is 

always considerably lower than one, with 3 veins. 

Awn 

According to its length, the awn of all species of rice can be divided into: 

Ø awnless: O. abromeitiana, O. glaberrima, O. granulata and O. schlechteri 

Ø short awn in which the awn is shorter than the glume itself: O. coarctata and O. ridleyi 

Ø moderately long awn, which is longer than the glume but not longer than 60 mm: O. 

australiensis, O. latifolia, O. longistaminata, O. minuta, O. punctata and O. subulata. 

Ø very long awn 60-200 mm: O. brachyantha, O. breviligulata and O. stapfii. 

The awns of rice are usually filiform or setaceous, i.e., in cross-section, they are orbicular and 

tapering only lightly at the apex. 

Lodicules 

In all species, lodicules are uniform, ovate-circular or orbicular, glabrous. 

Stamens 

The stamens have about 2-2.5 mm long linear-oblong anthers. The anthers dehisce through a 

longitudinal slit. 

Stigmas 

Stigmas are uniform, feathery and dark-violet or almost black. 

Fruits 

Fruits are small, compressed from sides, 1-8 mm long, oblong, elliptical or orbicular, depending 

on shape and size of the spikelet. Small fruits of rice are initially yellowish, then turn dark brown. 

(b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of Morphological Characters 

Based on morphological characters and geographical distribution of different species, the following 

sections may be established within the genus Oryza. 

(i) Sativa Roshev. 

The most widespread group, embracing the whole area of distribution of the genus; flowering 

glumes with distinctly crosswise intersecting rows of small tubercles; linear or linear-lanceolate 

upper empty glumes; annuals and perennials. 

To this section belong: O. sativa L., O. longistaminata A. Cheval. et Roehr., O. grandiglumis 

Prod., O. punctata Kotschy, O. stapfii Roshev., O. breviligulata A. Cheval. et Roehr., O. 

australiensis Dom., O. glaberrima Steud., O. latifolia Desv., Cheval. et Roehr., Prod., O. officinalis 

Wall., and O. minuta Presl.


(ii) Granulata Roshev. 

Found only in South-east Asia; perennials; flowering glumes with minute tuberculate-corrugated 

or verrucose surface; awl-shaped or bristle-shaped upper empty glumes; lanceolate or narrowly 

lanceolate spikelets. 

To this section belong: O. granulata Nees and O. abromeitiana Prod. 

(iii) Coarctata Roshev. 

Embraces South-east Asia and northern Australia; perennials or less frequently annuals; flowering 

glumes showing an almost smooth surface with minute, longitudinal dotted stripes; awl or bristleshaped 

upper empty glumes. 

To this section belong: O. schlechteriana Pilger, O. ridleyi Hook. f., O. coarctata Roxb. and 

O. brachyantha A. Cheval. et Roehr. 

(iv) Rhynchoryza Roshev. 

Occurs only in South America; perennial; comparatively large oblong spikelets drawn out at the 

apex into a long cone filled with spongy tissue, passing over into an awn; cyathiform upper empty 

glumes, with 3-5 veins. 

This section comprises only one species, O. subulata Nees. 

7

8 DOCUMENT SECTION V - ON REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF RICE BIOLOGY 

(ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA 

SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 

(a) Sexual Reproduction 

Oryza sativa is basically an autogamous plant propagating through seeds produced by selfpollination. 

Fertilization occurs in a spikelet, which has six anthers with more than 1,000 pollen 

grains in each, and an ovule with a branched stigma. Immediately after the spikelet opens at 

flowering, pollen disperses and germinates on the surface of the stigma. Only one pollen tube 

reaches the ovule to initiate double fertilization. 

Maturation of pollen in an anther is synchronized with maturation of ovule within the same 

spikelet. Germinability of pollen lasts only for a few minutes after being shed from anther under 

favourable temperature and moisture conditions, while ovules keep their viability to receive pollen 

for several days after maturation. The pollen of cultivated rice loses its viability within three to 

five minutes while that of wild rice remain viable up to nine minutes (Koga et al., 1971; Oka and 

Morishima, 1967). Most of the wild species have larger and longer stigma, which protrudes well 

outside the spikelet, facilitating increased percentage of outcrossing (Parmar et al., 1979; Virmani 

and Edwards, 1983). 

Outcrossing is several times higher in the wild species as compared to cultivars under the ‘A’ 

genome itself. Among the ecotypes of O. sativa, percentage outcrossing is generally higher in 

indicas than in japonicas (Table 2) (Oka, 1988). Nevertheless, cross-pollination between annual/ 

perennial species and cultivars in natural habitats where they grow side by side leading to hybrid 

swarms (O. spontanea in Asia and O. stapfii in Africa) is not uncommon. 

(i) Outcrossing rates 

Although O. sativa is basically self-pollinated, natural outcrossing can occur at a rate of up to 

0.5% (Oka, 1988) (Table 2). When different cultivars of the same maturity group are planted side 

by side in a field or in adjacent fields, natural outcrossing can occur between them. Outcrossing in 

such cases can be avoided by planting cultivars with sufficiently different duration in adjacent 

fields or by time isolation by adopting sufficiently different dates of planting. 

F plants of crosses within the indica or japonica groups generally show high fertility and 

1 

seedset. Crosses between the two groups show, however, lower fertility and seedset, the range 

being quite wide and varied depending on the parental choice. The F fertility, according to it, 

1 

cannot be the criterion for classifying Asian cultivars into indica and japonica groups (Oka, 

1988; Pham, 1991). Constellation of a set of traits characteristic to them besides F semisterility 

1 

has justified them to consider now as subspecies or geographical groups under O. sativa. 

The barrier of hybrid sterility in indica/japonica crosses has been intensively studied since 

early fifties and genic and chromosomal models have been proposed to explain the sterility. With 

the discovery of wide compatibility gene (s) in some of the varieties, which are compatible with 

both japonica and indica varieties, the sterility problem, has been overcome resulting in more 

productive varieties and hybrids of indica/japonica background. 

(ii) Interspecific crosses 

O. sativa and O. glaberrima are often grown as mixtures in various proportions in West African 

rice fields (Chu et al., 1969). The two species resemble each other, perhaps due to co-evolution 

from a common progenitor O. perennis, but natural hybrids between them are rare, even though 

experimental hybridisation is easy. The F plants are highly pollen-sterile, but about one-thirds of 

1 

the F embryo sacs are normal and functional. Backcrosses can be made with pollen of either of 

1

SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 

the parents. The gene loci that have been examined are identical in the two species (Sano, 1988). 

Most natural hybrids incompatible due to genetic and physiological differences, hardly survive to 

facilitate gene flow between the two species. 

In nature, O. rufipogon and O. nivara (the progenitor species) cross with O. sativa and produce 

hybrid swarms. The hybrids show partial sterility (Sharma and Shastry, 1965). O. glaberrima and 

its wild progenitor O. brevigulata similarly cross under natural environment resulting in hybrid 

swarms, which are fertile. They are of annual growth habit and resemble each other in most of the 

botanical characters (Oka, 1991). 

The wild rices with AA genome are distributed throughout the humid tropics such as Asian 

(O. nivara and O. rufipogon), African (O. barthii and O. longistaminata), American (O. 

glumaepatula) and Oceanian (O. meriodinalis) species. 

The relatively high percentage seed sets (9-73%) can however be obtained through artificial 

hybridization of O. sativa with these AA genome wild species (Sitch et al., 1989). O. nivara and 

O. rufipogon have been extensively used as donor sources for many valuable traits of value which 

included resistance to grassy stunt virus, blast and bacterial leaf blight besides cytoplasmic male 

sterility (Khush and Ling, 1974). 

Species belonging to BB, BBCC, CC, or CCDD genomes are relatively more crossable with 

O. sativa (0-30% seedset) than the more distantly related EE and FF genome species. The hybrids 

in both cases, however, are highly male and female sterile (Sitch, 1990). Desired gene transfer has 

been achieved through a series of backcrosses. For instance, resistance to brown planthopper 

(Nilaparvata lugens) and white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera) from O. officinalis (Jena 

and Khush, 1990) and to blast and bacterial blight from O. minuta (Amante-Bordeos et al., 1992) 

have been transferred by repeated backcrossing with O. sativa. Artificial crosses between O. 

sativa and more distantly related species such as O. ridleyi and O. meyeriana although have also 

been reported, success rate was very low (Katayama and Onizuka, 1979; Sitch et al., 1989). In 

such cases, embryo rescue is the approach to obtain F 1 hybrids and first backcross progenies. 

(b) Asexual Reproduction 

O. sativa, although is an annual and propagated by seed, can be maintained vegetatively as a perennial 

under favourable water and temperature conditions. The perennial character in O. sativa is considered to 

have been inherited from its ancestral species O. rufipogon (Morishima et al., 1963). 

Under natural conditions, tiller buds on the basal nodes start to re-grow after harvest. These 

new tillers, called “ratoon” grow best under long-day conditions. In some countries/situations, 

farmers grow rice as a ratoon crop to obtain a second harvest in a short period. 

Cell/ tissue culture techniques can be used to propagate calli and reproduce tissues or plants 

asexually under appropriate cultural conditions. Haploid plants are easily obtained through anther 

culture. They become diploid spontaneously or when artificially treated with polyploidizing agents 

(Niizeki and Oono, 1968). Anther culture is widely used as a rapid breeding method in rice, while 

doubled haploids serve as material for basic research in molecular mapping and tagging of genes 

of interest. 

(c) Reproductive Barriers 

Viable hybrids between O. sativa and distantly related species are difficult to achieve. The postfertilization 

barriers are of four types, viz., F inviability (early embryo abortion), F weakness, F 1 1 1 

sterility and hybrid breakdown (Oka, 1988). All these phenomena have been found in crosses of 

cultivated rice and its wild relatives, although F plants, whose parents have AA genome in common 

1 

show no significant disturbances in meiotic chromosome pairing (Chu et al., 1969). 

9


In many cases, hybrid inviability is due to failure of development of F 1 zygotes, particularly 

development of endosperm. The African perennial species O. longistaminata shows a stronger 

crossing barrier with O. glabberima and O. breviligulata than with O. sativa and O. rufipogon 

(Chu et al., 1969). 

F 1 weakness is controlled by complementary weakness-dominant genes (Chu and Oka, 1972), 

which disturb tissue differentiation or chlorophyll formation. It is rare in crosses between O. 

sativa cultivars (Amemiya and Akemine, 1963). Among strains of O. glabberima and O. 

breviligulata about one-fourth of the crosses examined show F 1 weakness (Chu and Oka, 1972). 

F 1 weakness was found also in crosses between O. longistaminata and O. glabberima or between 

O. breviligulata, and the American form of O. perennis, and between the Asian and Oceanian 

forms of O. perennis complex (Oka, 1988). 

F 1 hybrid sterility is a common feature in crosses of cultivated rice with their wild relatives. 

Failure of male and female gametes to develop normally is largely due to meiotic anomalies 

arising from either no or partial pairing of chromosomes. Cytoplasmic sterility factor found in 

wild species also in some combinations manifest F 1 sterility. 

Partial F 1 hybrid sterility is characteristic to intervarietal group cross with O. sativa especially 

in indica/ japonica combination. The sterility persisting beyond F 1 , in the F 2 and subsequent 

generations has been explained at genic and chromosomal levels (Kitamura 1962; Oka 1964). At 

generic level, it is attributed to a series of duplicate recessive genes while at chromosomal level as 

due to cryptic structural differences in the chromosome complements of the two geographic races. 

The weakness and sterility occurring in the F 2 and later segregating generations are referred 

to as hybrid breakdown. It is reported to be controlled by a set of complementary recessive weakness 

genes (Oka, 1957; Okuno, 1986). Genes for F 2 weakness seem to be distributed occasionally in 

cultivated and wild rice species. 

Table 2: Estimated outcrossing rates in wild and cultivated rice species by different methods 

Taxa/ Type Origin Method No. of Outcrossing Reference 

Populations (%) 

Asian perennis 

Perennial Taiwan Marker gene 1 30.7 Oka, 1957 

Thailand Marker gene 1 44.0 Oka and Chang, 1961 

Thailand Isozyme 1 50.6 Barbier, 1987 

markers 

Intermediate India Variance ratio 1 37.4 Oka and Chang, 1959 

Perennial Sri Lanka Variance ratio 2 22.4-26.5 Sakai and Narise, 1959 

Annual India Variance ratio 1 21.7 Oka and Chang, 1959 

India Variance ratio 3 16.6-33.9 Sakai and Narise, 1960 

India Marker gene 1 7.9 Roy, 1921 

Thailand Isozyme 1 7.2 Barbier, 1987 

markers 

Weedy India Variance ratio 2 17.3-20.6 Oka and Chang, 1959 

Breviligulata Africa Variance ratio 2 3.2-19.7 Morishima et al., 1963 

Sativa 

Indica Taiwan Marker gene 4 0.1-0.3 Oka, 1988 

Sri Lanka Variance ratio 1 3.6 Sakai and Narise, 1960 

Japonica Taiwan Marker gene 5 0.6-3.9 Oka, 1988 

Source: Oka, 1988

SECTION VI – CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 

11 


(a) Rice Growing Regions 

Rice is grown under diverse soil and climatic conditions. It is said that there is hardly any type of 

soil in which it cannot be grown including alkaline and acidic soils. Because of its wide adaptability, 

it is grown from below sea level in Kuttanad area of Kerala to an altitude of 2000 metres above 

sea level in Jammu & Kashmir, hills of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Northeastern hills 

(NEH) areas. 

The rice growing areas in the country may be broadly grouped into the following five regions: 

(i) North-eastern region 

This region comprises Assam and North-eastern states. In Assam, rice is grown in the basin of 

river Brahmaputra. The region receives very heavy rainfall and hence, rice is grown under rainfed 

conditions. 

(ii) Eastern region 

It comprises Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. 

In this region, rice is grown in the basins of the rivers Ganga and Mahanadi. It has the highest 

intensity of rice cultivation in the country. The region receives heavy rainfall and hence, rice is 

grown mainly under rainfed conditions. 

(iii) Northern region 

Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal 

constitute this region. Mainly as the irrigated crop, rice is grown from May/July to September/ 

December. 

(iv) Western region 

This region comprises Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rainfed 

conditions during June/ August–October/ December. 

(v) Southern region 

This region comprises Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Rice is 

mainly grown as irrigated crop in the deltas of the rivers Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. In the 

non-deltaic areas, rice is grown as rainfed crop. 

(b) Rice Ecosystems 

Rice is grown under varied ecosystems on a variety of soils under varying climatic and hydrological 

conditions ranging from waterlogged and poorly drained to well-drained situations as briefly 

discussed below: 

(i) Irrigated rice 

The total area under irrigated rice is about 22.0 million hectares, which accounts for about 46 per


cent of the total area under rice crop in the country. In Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal 

Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, rice is 

grown as irrigated crop. 

(ii) Rainfed rice 

The rainfed ecosystem may be broadly categorized into upland and lowland ecologies. 

Ø Upland rice: Upland rice areas lie in the eastern zone comprising Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, 

Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and North-eastern Hill region. In the rainfed upland 

rice, there is no standing water in the field after few hours of cessation of rain. Because of 

uneven topography, the upland rice accounts for about 6.0 million ha (13.5 per cent of the 

total rice area). Productivity of upland rice is very low and stagnant for long. As against the 

present national average productivity of about 1.9 tonnes per ha., the average yield of upland 

rice is only 0.90 tonnes per ha. 

Ø Lowland rice: Lowland rice area is mostly located in the eastern region comprising Assam, 

Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Lowland rice area is 

about 14.4 million ha., which accounts for 32.4 per cent of the total area under rice. The 

average productivity of lowland rice ranges from 1.0 to 1.2 tonnes per ha. as against the 

national average of 1.9 tonnes per ha. 

The lowland rice ecology depending on the water regimes may be further categorized into 

three subecologies as detailed below: 

♦ Shallow lowland rice: water depth below 50 cm. 

♦ Semi-deepwater rice: water depth between 50-100 cm. 

♦ Deepwater rice: water depth more than 100 cm in the field. The soil of this subecology is 

poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter but is rich in potassium. Deepwater rice 

areas are prone to seasonal floods and duration of which varies from year to year. 

(iii) Coastal saline rice 

Rice areas close to east and west coasts suffer from salinity. Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa, 

Tamil Nadu and West Bengal on the east coast and Gujarat and Maharashtra on the west coast 

have sizeable saline rice areas. Total rice area under coastal salinity rice is estimated to be about 

1 million ha, which accounts for 2.3% of area under rice cultivation. The coastal saline soils often 

show deficiency of iron and zinc, which cause chlorosis and reduced tillering. Average yield in 

coastal saline area is about 1 tonne as against the average national yield of 1.9 tonnes per ha. 

(iv) Cold/ hill rice 

Such rice areas lie in the hill regions comprising Jammu and Kashmir, Uttranchal and Northeastern 

hill states. Area under rice in cold/ hill region is about 1 million ha which accounts for 

2.3% of total area under rice. Average yield is about 1.1 tonnes per ha as against the average 

national yield of 1.9 tonnes per ha. Major productivity constraints of these areas are low temperature, 

blast, drought spell and very short span of cropping season. Because of the rolling topography in 

these areas, bench terracing is being followed, which limits the use of fertilizers and improved 

agronomical practices. In these areas the crop is invariably affected by low temperature in the 

early stage and sometimes at the flowering stage resulting in sterility and hence, reduced yields.


13 

(c) Cropping Patterns 

India has a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and accordingly cropping patterns vary 

widely from region to region and to a lesser extent from year to year. For devising meaningful 

cropping patterns, it is necessary to divide the country into homogeneous regions based on physical, 

climatological or agronomic features. Soil and the climate being the important factors for developing 

region specific cropping patterns and can be taken as the criteria for crop zoning. 

The cropping pattern in different agroclimatic zones has been devised and adopted by farmers 

based on their long experience, suitability of soil, profitability, availability of market and industrial 

infrastructure and period of water available. Cropping patterns include broadly relay/sequential 

cropping, inter cropping and mixed cropping. With the introduction of early maturing and high 

yielding varieties of rice, intensification and diversification of cropping around rice could be 

substantially increased in the irrigated ecology as well as shallowland and rainfed ecologies. 

While improving the productivity, such efforts have helped in increasing the farm income as well. 

In the rainfed upland and other moisture limiting/excess ecologies aimed at risk distribution 

and income enhancement intercropping of rice with appropriate companion crops has helped the 

farmers to improve the productivity. Some of the rice-based cropping patterns being followed in 

different rice ecologies as under: 

(i) Rice-rice: This cropping pattern is practiced in the traditional rice growing areas having high 

rainfall and assured irrigation in summer months, particularly, in soils, which have high water 

holding capacity and low rate of infiltration. In some canal-irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu, a cropping 

pattern of 300% intensity is followed. Choice of medium early and early maturing photoinsensitive 

varieties makes such intensification possible. 

(ii) Rice-cereals (other than rice): This cropping pattern is being followed in areas where water is 

not adequate for taking the third rice crop in summer. Instead of rice, early maturing and less 

water requiring ragi, maize or jowar is chosen. 

(iii) Rice-pulses/oilseeds: In the areas where, there is water scarcity, instead of a cereal crop in 

summer, short duration pulse crop like blackgram or greengram is preferred. Depending on the 

water availability, whereas rice followed by either chickpea or mustard is the pattern in the north, 

rice followed by blackgram (as in Krishna district at Andhra Pradesh) in south is the practice. 

(iv) Rice-groundnut: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are following this cropping pattern. 

After harvesting rice crop, groundnut is planted in summer. 

(v) Rice-wheat: It is the predominant cropping pattern in north and north-western (Indogangetic 

plains) parts of the country. Over 9 million hectares is under this cropping pattern. 

(vi) Rice-wheat-pulses: This cropping pattern is being followed in the alluvial soil belt of northern 

states. After harvesting of wheat, greengram and cowpea are grown as fodder. Besides, cowpea is 

grown in red and yellow soils of Orissa and blackgram is grown in the black soils. 

(vii) Rice-toria-wheat: This cropping pattern is commonly followed in northern parts of the country. 

This is possible because of very early maturing toria varieties adapted to late sown conditions.


(viii) Rice-fish farming system: Fields with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period 

and areas free from heavy flooding are suitable for rice-fish farming system. Small and marginal 

farmers in rainfed lowland rice areas in the eastern states are following this system. They raise a 

modest crop of traditional low yielding rice varieties during rainy (kharif) season along with fish. 

In order to improve the economic conditions of these farmers, the Central Rice Research Institute, 

Cuttack has developed productive rice+fish farming system. There are two farming systems 

involving rice and fish. They are rice+fish farming system, which is generally followed in the 

semideep water and deep-water ecologies in the eastern states and fish after rice (rice-fish) in 

coastal Kerala, West Bengal etc. Steps have already been taken to popularize rice-fish farming 

system in low land areas to increase the production and productivity of crops and thereby improving 

the economic conditions of the resource poor farmers of these areas.

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 

15 


India is rich in rice diversity by virtue of its north-eastern region being on the periphery of the 

centre of origin of rice on one hand and having many centres of diversity (secondary centres) on 

the other. It exists in terms of thousands of landraces of Asian cultivar at the centre of origin/ 

centres of diversity; hundreds of improved cultivars adapted to varied agro-ecologies and closely 

related wild/weedy species constituting rice germplasm in India. Natural and human selection of 

cultivars over centuries for varied agro-ecological conditions; viz., altitude, temperature, rainfall, 

soil type etc. have substantially contributed to the diversity. 

It is estimated that number of landraces of rice cultivars available in the country is between 

75,000 and 1,00,000. Some of these landraces were introduced since mid sixties. Most of these 

accessions have either already been collected and conserved in gene banks or have been discarded 

by farmers in preference to improved varieties. All the collections now in the gene banks are not 

unique. It is believed that 30 to 40 per cent of these may be duplicates. 

With the establishment of the ICAR in 1929, systematic research was initiated for rice 

improvement. Rice research stations were established in all the agro-climatic zones of the country. 

These rice research stations collected local varieties and improved some of them mostly through 

pureline selection and a few through hybridization. The improvement was for higher yield, desired 

maturity and grain quality, and adaptation to various ecologies and resistance to biotic stresses. 

Varieties like GEB24 (yield, quality), T141 (yield), SR26B (salinity resistant), FR13A & FR43B 

(flood resistant), Chinguru Boro (deepwater), Basmati370 (quality) etc. are outcome of such early 

efforts. 

Due to increased population pressure mainly after the World War II coupled with limitation 

of available land, production efforts have to be accelerated through yield increase in Asia, where 

rice is the staple food for 90 per cent of the population The availability of chemical fertilizers and 

their successful application to rice crop in Japan prompted FAO (Food and Agriculture 

Organization) to launch japonica x indica hybridization project for south and Southeast Asia in 

the fifties. It was not, however, successful because of the problem of hybrid sterility characteristic 

to inter-subspecific crosses. 

The discovery of the semidwarf mutant, viz., Dee-geo-woo-gen and development of high 

yielding first semidwarf variety (Taichung Native-1) using it as source of short stature became a 

landmark in rice improvement in south and South-east Asia including India. IR8 was bred at IRRI 

and many semidwarf rice varieties have been bred in India utilising developing gene sources like 

DGWG as parents. More than 600 high yielding dwarf rice varieties have been released in India 

during 1965-2000. 

These short statured varieties are responding well to higher doses of fertiliser application and 

have helped in raising the genetic yield level and thereby production of rice. These varieties are 

photoinsensitive and hence, are adapted to all the rice seasons. The whole day neutral nature of 

these varieties enables 2 or 3 crops of rice in a year and hence high productivity/unit area/year. 

Presence of rice crop round the year has facilitated increased pest/disease incidence; resulting in 

recurrent crop losses. In breeding efforts to contain the pests, though helped greatly, selection 

pressure prompted coevolution of them as well resulting in many virulent races/biotypes. 

(a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm 

India is also known for its quality rices, like Basmati and other fine grain aromatic types


grown in north-west regions of the country, which have been enjoying patronage although as 

evident from various ancient texts and historical accounts including in the old Indian scriptures 

like Krishi Sukt and Sushrta (400 BC), Ain-e-Akbari (1590 AD) and Heer Rabjha (1725 to 1798) 

(Table 3). 

Table 3: Indigenous high quality non-aromatic and aromatic rice (landraces or pure line selection 

from landraces) types in India 

State Non-aromatic Aromatic 

Andhra Aswani Karthi Vadlu, Atragada, Kichidi Kaki Rekhalu (HR59), 

Pradesh Sannalu, Krishna Katakalu, Sukhdas (HR47) 

Maharajabhogam, Punasa Akkullu 

Assam Aijani (Mahsuri), Guniribora (Glutinous), Badshahbhog, Malbhog, 

Kakua Bao, Lalahu, Manoharsali, Prasadbhog 

Rangaduria 

Bihar Black Gora, BR13, BR14, BR34, Brown Badshahbhog, BR8, Mohanbhog, 

Gora, Kessore, Kolaba, T141, NP130 NP49, NP114, Ram Tulsi, 

Tulsimanjari 

Gujarat Kolamba 42, Sathe 34-36, Sukhvel 20, Kalhapur scented, Kamod 118, 

Zeerasal 280, Zinya 31 Pankhari 203, Zeerasal 

Haryana Jhona 221, Jhona 349 Basmati 370, Taraori Basmati 

Himachal Dundar 43, Lalnakanda, Phulpattas 72, Desi Basmati 23 

Pradesh Ramjawain 100 

Jammu and CH988, CH1039, Niver, Siga, T137, Basmati 370, Muskh Budgi, 

Kashmir T138 Ranbir Basmati 

Karnataka Allur Sanna, Antersal, Bangarutheega, Kagasali, Sindigi local 

Dodda byra, Kare kagga, S1092, SR26B 

Kerala Cheruvirippu, Pokkali, Ptb2, Ptb12, Jeerakasala, Gandhkasala 

Ptb15, Ptb18, Ptb21, Ptb33, Red 

Triveni, Vytilla 

Madhya Nungi, Pandhri Luchai 16, Safari 17, Baspatri, Chattri, Chinoor, Dubraj, 

Pradesh Sariya, Laloo 14 Gopalbhog, Hansraj, Kali Kamod 

Maharashtra Bhura rata, Chimansel, Kala rata, Ambemohar 102, Ambemohar 157, 

Kolam, Kolamba 184, Kolipi, Zinya 149 Ambemohar 159, Jirasel, Kamod, 

Krishnasal, Pankhari 203 

Orissa Bahyayahuynda, FR13A, FR43B, Badshahbhog, Sel T812 

Nonabokra, Rangolata, Ratnachudi, T90 

(Machha Kanta), T141 (Soruch Inamali)


17 

Punjab Jhona 349, Lalnakanda, Phulpattas Basmati 217, Basmati 370 

Rajasthan Batika, Dhaniasal, Pathria, Segra, Kala Badal, Kamod, Nawabi kolam 

Sutar, Tukri 

Tamil Nadu Adt8, Adt10, Anaikomban, Co25, Jeeraga Samba 

GEB24, Kar Samba, Katti Samba, 

Kichdi Samba, TKM6 

Uttar Pradesh Adamchini, Anjee, Bambasa, Bansi, Badshapasand, Basmati (Type 3), 

/Uttaranchal Dehula, Jaisuria, Jalamagna, N22, Basmati 370, Bindli, Duniapet, 

NP130, Tapachini, T100, T136 Hansraj, Kalanamak, Kalasukhdas, 

Lalmati, Sakkarchini, Tilakchandan, 

Vishnuparag 

West Bengal Badkalamkati, Bhasmanik, Charnock, Badshah pasand, Badshahbhog, 

Churnakati, Dhairal, Dular, Latisail, Basmati, Gopalbhog, Govindabhog, 

MC282, Nonabokra, Nonarasmsail, Kaminibhog, Kataribhog, 

Nizersail, Patnai 23, Seetasail Randhunipagal, Sitabhog 

Source: Siddiq et al., 2005; Sharma and Rao, 2004 

Note: For the detailed description of different rice varieties released in different states of India, refer 

Sharma and Rao, 2004 

(b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value 

Earliest Indian records also list many rice cultivars like Kalavarihi (nourishing rice) and Kalama, 

Pundarika, Panduka, Shakunahrit, Sugandhaka, Kardamaka, Kanchanaka, Mahasali, 

Mahishamastaka and Lodhrapurshpaka (medicinal value) (Chunekar and Pandey, 1986). Ayurvedic 

treatise (Indian Materia Medica) also speaks of varieties like ‘Njavara’ and ‘Gathuhan’ for treatment 

of arthritis. Rice collection service done in Chhattisgarh area led to the identification of many 

varieties of curative value popular among folklore (Table 4). 

Table 4: Rice varieties of Chattisgarh region reported to possess medicinal and health value 

Variety Medicinal Value 

Alcha Curing pimples, curing small boils of infants (by feeding the lactating mother with 

cooked rice) 

Laicha Preventing unborn children from contracting (by feeding the pregnant woman with 

cooked rice) 

Gathuhan Treatment of rheumatism 

Karhani Treatment of paralysis 

Bassior Relief to headache (by inhalation of fumes of rice bran); epilepsy 

Nagkesar Cure to lung disease 

Kalimooch Relief to skin problems (external application of plant extract) 

Regbhaddar Treatment of gastric ailments 

Serei Tonic for general weakness 

Meharaji Tonic for women after delivery 

Source: Das and Oudhia, 2001; Siddiq and Shobharani, 1998


Boluses of cooked Njavara rice are used for ‘Navarakizhi’, treatment of all skeletal and 

muscular diseases, paralysis, seiatica etc. in Kerala. 

(c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars 

Hybridization is one of the most commonly used breeding methods for improvement mainly of 

open pollinated and often cross pollinated crops. Rice, a strictly self-pollinated one, has been the 

first crop, where hybrid technology could be successfully developed and commercially exploited. 

The phenomenon of heterosis was first reported by Jones (1926). But it took almost five decades 

for its commercial exploitation. China is the first country to capitalize on hybrid rice technology. 

In China the first hybrid rice was released for the commercial cultivation in 1976 (Yuan, 1994). 

Hybrid rice technology following plant type-based high yielding varieties helped to raise the 

genetic yield level by 15 to 20 per cent, beyond what is achievable in semi-dwarf inbred varieties 

(Bharaj et al., 1996). 

Though sources of male sterility and fertility restoration could be found, commercial hybrid 

seed production posed problems because of very low percentage outcrossing. This limitation 

could be overcome by manipulation of pollination control mechanisms resulting in enhanced 

cross-pollination. Unlike in normal rice varieties, stigma in male sterile lines remains receptive 

relatively for long hours to receive pollen. This physiological adaptation of male sterile plants has 

also helped; besides supplementary pollination methods realize high percentage seed setting. 

Research to develop hybrid technology in rice in India although was initiated during 1970s. It 

could be intensified since 1989 with the launching of a mission mode project, sponsored by ICAR. 

Now the project “Development and use of hybrid rice technology” operates as a national research 

network involving 12 centres all over the country, coordinated by Directorate of Rice Research, 

Hyderabad (Siddiq et al., 1994; Krishnaiah and Shobharani, 1997). With the concerted research 

work, the country developed a dozen rice hybrids each from public and private sectors within a short 

period. The salient features of some of these hybrids released are given in the Table 5. 

Table 5: Hybrid rice varieties released in different states of India 

No Hybrid Year of Parentage Recommended Duration Yield Characteristics 

Variety Release for the State (Days) (T/Ha) 

1. APHR-1 1994 IR-58025A/ Andhra Pradesh 130-135 7.14 Suitable for uplands 

Vajram of coastal Andhra 

Pradesh. 

2. APHR-2 1994 IR-62829A/ Andhra Pradesh 120-125 7.52 Grains are LS. 

MTU-9992 

3. CORH-1 1994 IR-62829A/ Tamil Nadu 110-115 6.08 Grains are MS, 

IR-10198 resistant to the pest 

gall midge. 

4. KRH-1 1994 IR-58025A/ Karnataka 120-125 6.02 Suitable for irrigated 

IR-9761 areas. 

5. CNRH-3 1995 IR-2829A/ West Bengal 125-130 7.49 Grains are LB, suitable 

Ajaya for Boro season. 

6. DRRH-1 1996 IR-58025A/ Andhra Pradesh 125-130 7.30 Grains are LS, mild 

IR-40750 aromatic and resistant 

to blast disease.


19 

7. KRH-2 1996 IR-58025A/ Karnataka 130-135 7.40 Grains are LB, 

KMR-3 resistant to the pest, 

BPH and blast 

disease, suitable for 

irrigated areas. 

8. Pant Sankar 1997 IR-58025A/ Uttar Pradesh 115-120 6.80 — 

Dhan-1 UPRI-93-133 

9. CORH-2 1998 IR-58025A/ Tamil Nadu 120-125 6.25 Grains are MB. 

C-20R 

10. ADTRH-1 1998 IR-58025A/ Tamil Nadu 115-120 7.10 Grains are LS. 

IR-66 

11. Sahyadri 1998 IR-8025A/ Maharashtra 125-130 6.15 Grains are LS. 

BR-827-35 

12. Narendra 1998 IR-8025A/ Uttar Pradesh 125-130 6.15 — 

Shankar NDR-3026 

Dhan-2 

13. PHB-71 1997 — Haryana, UP, 130-135 7.86 Grains are LS, 

Tamil Nadu resistant to the pest, 

BPH. 

14. UPRH-27 1997 IR-58025A/ Plains of Uttar 115-120 6.80 — 

UPRI-92-133 Pradesh 

15. PA-6201 2000 — Eastern and 125-130 6.18 Grains are LS, 

some parts of resistant to the pest, 

Southern India BPH and blast 

disease. 

16. Pusa 2001 Pusa- 6A/ Delhi, Punjab, 125 - Aromatic Basmati 

RH-10 PRR-78 Uttranchal Hybrid. 

17. Hybrid- 2001 6CO-2/ Andhra Pradesh, 135-140 6 - 8 Plant height: 100- 

6444 6MO-5 Maharashtra, 120 cms, Leaf : 

Uttar Pradesh, 24x1.5 cms, 1000 

Orissa, Tripura, grain weightand 

Uttranchal 22g Kernel : 

6.21x2.06 mm,L/B 

ratio : 3.01, Non- 

Lodging, N 

responsive 

Grains : MS, 

suitable for well 

drained, irrigated 

condition, resistant 

to neck and rice 

tungro virus. 

BPH = Brown plant hopper; LB=Long bold; LS=Long slender; MB=Medium bold; MS= Medium slender 

Source: Rice Status Paper, 2005 

(d) Exotic Germplasm 

More than 90,000 accessions have been imported and made available to researchers and farmers 

in India (Singh et al., 2001a). Introductions from IRRI during 1960s have led to green revolution.


The accessions introduced included high yielding dwarf varieties such as Taichung (Native)-1 

and IR-8. Some important trait specific introductions are listed below (Table 6). 

Table 6: Abiotic and biotic stress resistant exotic accessions 

Traits 

Abiotic Stress 

Accessions 

Cold tolerance EC 121003 

Salinity tolerance EC 122935 to EC 122953, EC 232900 to EC 233000 

Drought tolerance 

Biotic Stress 

EC 201878 to EC 201975 

Green leaf hopper resistance EC 309699 

Leaf folder resistance EC 121828 to EC 121853 

Stem borer resistance EC 121824 to EC 121825, EC 199465 to EC 199466 

Blast resistance EC 121807 to EC121815, EC 307145 to EC 307161 

Sheath blight resistance EC 199465 to EC 199466 

Bacterial blight resistance EC 121816 to EC 121823, EC 201878 to EC 201975 

Tungro virus resistance EC 161320 to EC 161346 

Source: Siddiq et al., 2005 

(e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits 

Characterization of germplasm based on easily identifiable and stable morpho-physiological traits 

has enabled establishment of the identity of germplasm for economic importance. However, 

characterization is largely qualitative and less information is available on resistance/tolerance to 

biotic and abiotic stresses. Characterization of wild rice germplasm has revealed that most of the 

wild species could be potential donors for a range of traits (Table 7). 

Table 7: Useful traits in wild species 

Trait 

Abiotic stress 

Species 

Drought tolerance/avoidance O. australiensis, O. barthii, O. longistaminata 

Shade tolerance O. granulata, O. minuta, O. officinalis 

Adaptation to aerobic soils 

Biotic stress 

O. granulata, O. meyeriana 

Brown plant hopper resistance O. officinalis, O. australiensis, O. minuta, O. brachyantha, 

O. granulata, O. punctata, O. eichengeri 

Green leaf hopper resistance O. eichengeri, O. minuta, O. officinalis 

White backed plant hopper resistance O. eichengeri, O. minuta, O. officinalis 

Yellow stem borer resistance O. brachyantha, O. granulata, O. ridleyi 

Blast resistance O. minuta, O. ridleyi 

Sheath blight resistance O. barthii, O. latifolia, O. minuta, O. nivara, O. rufipogon 

Bacterial leaf blight resistance O. barthii, O. brachyantha, O. granulata, O. minuta, O. ridleyi 

Rice grassy stunt virus resistance 

Other useful traits 

O. nivara 

Cytoplasmic male sterility O. rufipogon 

High bio-mass O. alta, O. grandiglumis, O. latifolia 

Elongation ability O. meridionalis 

Source: Siddiq et al., 2005


21 

Scientists have put on their efforts to broaden the genepool of cultivated rice through 

introgression of genes from wild species for tolerance to major biotic and abiotic stresses and 

improved quality characteristics. The first example of transfer from a wild species is the 

introgression of a gene for Rice grassy stunt virus resistance from O. nivara to cultivated rice 

varieties. A summary of genes transferred from wild species to cultivated rice is given in the 

following table. 

Table 8: Introgression of genes of wild Oryza species into cultivated rice (O. sativa) 

Trait Donor Oryza Species Gene 

Brown plant hopper resistance O. officinalis bph11(t) 

bph12(t) 

Qbp1 

Qbp2 

O. minuta — 

O. latifolia — 

O. australiensis Bph10 

White backed plant hopper resistance O. officinalis — 

Blast resistance O. minuta Pi9(t) 

Bacterial blight resistance O. rufipogon Xa23(t) 

O. longistaminata — 

O. officinalis — 

O. minuta — 

O. latifolia — 

O. australiensis — 

O. brachyantha — 

Grassy stunt resistance O. nivara — 

Tungro tolerance O. rufipogon — 

Cytoplasmic male sterility O. sativa f. spontanea 

O. perennis 

O. glumaepatula 

O. rufipogon 

O. nivara — 

Tolerance to aluminium toxicity O. rufipogon QTL 

Yield enhancing loci O. rufipogon yld1 

yld2 

Source: Brar and Khush, 2003 

Wild species carry several useful genes for rice improvement but they are associated with 

several weedy traits such as grain shattering, poor plant type, poor grain characteristics and low 

seed yield. Besides, several incompatibility factors limit the transfer of useful genes from wild 

species into cultivated species. To achieve precise transfer of genes from wild to cultivated species, 

strategies involving combination of conventional plant breeding methods with tissue culture and 

molecular approaches have become important. 

A systematic evaluation conducted through the efforts of Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), 

Hyderabad and a decade long ICAR sponsored network project for germplasm evaluation of rice facilitated 

multi-location and location-specific hotspot screening of rice germplasm for various biotic stresses.


Table 9: Important donors identified at Directorate of Rice Research for resistance to various 

insect-pests and diseases, abiotic stresses and yield supporting physiological attributes 

Traits Important Donors 

Insect-pests 

Yellow stem borer ADT2, ARC10257, ARC10598, ASD10, Ptb15, Ptb18, SLO17, 

TKM6 

Gall midge ARC5984, Bengle, Bhumansam, Eswarakora, Velluthachira, 

Leaung 152, NHTA8, Siam 29, W1263 

Brown plant hopper ARC6650, Babawee, Chemban, Co25, HR19, Mudgo, Ptb18, 

Ptb19, Ptb21, Ptb33, Ratu Heenati 

Green leaf hopper ADT14, ARC10313, ARC6006, ARC7012, ASD7, Co9, Pankhari 

203, Ptb8, SLO4 

White backed plant hopper ARC10239, ARC11316, Chempar, HR22, Kalubmati, N22, 

Senawee, WC1240 

Leaf folder ARC10982, GEB24, Ptb33, TMK6 

Diseases 

Blast Carreon, Co4, Dawn, Raminad Strain 3, Tadukan, Tetep 

Sheath blight ARC10531, ARC10532, ARC10635, ARC15362, Athebu, BCP3, 

Buhjan, KRC355, KRC356, Laka, Nangmons 4, OS4, Phoure l, 

Ramadja, Saibham, Suduwee, T141, Ta-Poo-cho-z 

Bacterial leaf blight BJ1, Cemposelak, Chinsura Boro II, DV85, Java 14, Lacrose/ 

Zenith Nira (LZN), O.longistaminata, Sayaphal, Sigadis, TKM6, 

Wase-Aikoku 

Rice tungro virus Ambemohar 159, ARC10599, ARC11554, ARC12981, 

ARC14320, ARC14766, ARC15570, Kataribhog, Ptb18, Ptb21 

Rice grassy stunt virus ARC13820, ARC13901 

Abiotic stresses 

Drought ARC10372, BR23 (White gora), Brown gora, Chanda 2, DJ5, Dular, 

EB17, Gajgaur Dhani, Goradhan, Kinandang Patong, Lalnakanda, 

MAU Sd10, MAU Sel.9, N22, Nandi, Prage 147, Rdn185-2, Rikuto 

Norin, SLO16, Tuljapur 1, Tuljapur 28, Tuljapur 34 

Low light Ambemohar 157, Batkpahi, Gajepsali, K540, Kolapakhi, Lothabar, 

Malkolam, Nakarasali, Rajipsali, Z63 

Salinity Chettiviruppu, Chootupokkali, Nonasail, Patnai 23, Pokkali, 

SR26B 

Submergence Boku, Boyan, Bayyahunda, HbDW8 

Physiological attributes 

Better photosynthetic efficiency AC4491, Mahsuri, Ptb10. 

Better photosynthetic efficiency Mahsuri, NS1281, Pankaj, T90 

(under low light conditions) 

Better utilization of solar energy AC1491, BAM3, Ptb10, T141 

Low photorespiration B76, Patnai 23 

High dry matter production Intan, Manosarovar, Pankaj, Swarnaprabha 

High density grain Badshahog, Rupsail 

High harvest index T141 

High fertilizer use efficiency IR42-25323, IR29912-56-3, IR29912-56-3-1 

Source: Siddiq et al., 2005


23 

The large variability in rice genetic resources has led to identification of several donor sources 

suited to specific and changing agro-climatic conditions, having resistance/tolerance to biotic/abiotic 

stresses and with enhanced yield potential. A great source of strength for rice improvement programme 

has been the rich germplasm collections available in the gene bank of IRRI as well as in the national 

gene banks of several countries, including India, China and Japan. Extensive use of diverse donor 

sources mostly in the improved genetic backgrounds has led to the evolution of nearly 632 high 

yielding varieties in India (DRR, 2001). Of these 314 varieties are suitable for irrigated ecology, 84 

for rainfed uplands, 44 for rainfed lowland and deep-water ecologies, 33 for high altitudes, and 15 

for saline and alkaline soils. In addition, 19 aromatic slender grain varieties have also been released. 

Many of these varieties combine specific and multiple resistances against major insect-pests and 

diseases; and tolerance to cold, drought, unfavourable soils, etc. (Table 10). 

Table 10: High-yielding rice varieties resistant to various biotic and abiotic stresses 

Stress Varieties 

Biotic stress 

Stem borer ADT44, ADT(R)3, Bha Lum 2, Dandi, Leima Phou 1, Mugad Sugandha, 

Pantdhan 16, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, Rashmi, Ratna, Saket 4, Sasyasree, Shah 

Sarang 1, Swetha, Vikas 

Brown plant hopper ADT(R)45, Bharathidasan, CR1002, Cottondora Sannalu, Deepti, Gauri, 

Godavari, HKR120, IR36, Jawahar, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, Jyothi, 

Kanakam, Kartika, Nandyal Sannalu, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, SKL 3-11-25-30- 

36, Surya, Tholakari 

White backed ADT 38, Bharathidasan, Bhudeb, Dandi, HKR120, HRI120, PR109, PMK 

plant hopper (R)3, Sarasa, Shanthi, Swetha, Sumati, Surya, Udaya 

Green leafhopper ADT38, IR24, IR50, Samridhi, Shakti, Vikramarya 

Gall midge ADT38, Anjali, ASD18, Asha, CU44, Gauri, IR36, Jagtial Mahsuri, Jagtial 

Sannalu, Kakatiya, Lalat, MDU3, Oragallu, Pantdhan 16, Phalguna, PKV 

Makarand, Pothana, PY6, Rajendradhan 202, Rashmi, Ratnagiri 1, Ratnagiri 2, 

Samlei, Sarathi, SKL8, Sumati, Surekha, Varalu, Sagarsamba, Pelavadlu 

Blast Apporva, Bamaleswari, Bha Lum 1, Bha Lum 2, Bharani, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas 

dhan 110, Birsamati, BR2656-9-3-1, CO47, CSR23, Dandi, Dhanrasi, Harsha, 

IET16075, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, KHP5, Kohshar, KRH2, Krishna 

Hamsa, Leima phou 1, Mugad Sugandha, PA102, Palamdhan 957, Pant sugandha 

dhan 115, Pantdhan 16, Pinakini, PKV Makarand, PNR519, Pusa Sugandha 3, 

Rajarajan, Rashmi, Rasi, Rasmi, Shah Sarang 1, Sharavati, SKL30-11-25-30- 

36, SKL8, Somasila, Sravani, Sukardhan1, Sumati, Swetha, Tikkana, Vandana, 

Vasumati, Vedagiri, Vivekdhan 82, VL Dhan 8, Yamini 

Bacterial leaf blight ADT39, Ajaya, Bamaleswari, Bapatla Sannalu, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas dhan 109, 

Birsa vikas dhan 110, CR1002, CSR23, Dandi, Dhansari,Godavari, HKR120, 

IET16075, IR36, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, Karjat 1, Krand, Narendra 2, 

Narendra Usar 3, PR110, PR111, PR113, PR114, PR115, PR116, PR4141, Pusa 

1121, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, Ramakrishna, SKL3-11-25-30-36, Swetha, Tholakari, 

Vandana 

Rice tungro virus ASD15, Bhudeb, Dhanrasi, IR34, IR50, Jagabandhu, Pusa RH10, Ratna, Saket 

4, Srinivas, Swetha


Sheath blight ADT39, ASD18, Asha, Bhanja, Ratnagiri13, Salivahana, TKM 9 

Multiple resistance ADT38, Ananga, ASD18, Asha, Bha Lum 2, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas dhan 110, 

Dandi, Dhansari, Godavari, IET16075, IR36, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, 

Kshira, Lalat, Narendra 2, Pantdhan 10, Pantdhan 16, Rajendra, Rashmi, 

Shaktiman, SKL8, SKL30-11-25-30-36, Sumati, Suraksha, Swetha 

Abiotic stress 

Salinity/ Alkalinity Bhavani , CSR6, CSR10, CSR27, CST1, CST23, Dandi, Narendra 1, Narendra 

Usar 3, Panvel 1, Panvel 2, Panvel 3, SLR51214, Sumati, TRY(R)2, Vikas, 

Vytilla 2, Vytilla 4, Yamini 

Low temperature Barkat, Himalaya 741, Himdhan, Pantdhan 957, Surarandhan 1, Tawi, Himalaya 

1, Vivekdhan 62, VL Dhan 16, VL Dhan 39, VL Dhan 163, VL Dhan 221 

Drought Aditya, Annada, Ashwini, Bha Lum 1, Bha Lum 2, Birsa vikas dhan 108, Birsa 

vikas dhan 109, Birsa vikas dhan 110, Chingam, Danteswari, GAUR1, Govind, 

GR2, GR3, GR5, GR8, Harsha, Heera, Kshira, Narendra 80, PMK(R)3, Purva, 

Rashmi, Rasi, Ratnagiri 71-1, Ratnagiri 73-1-1, Ravi, Sabari, Sakoli 6, Sarjoo 

49, Sarjoo 50, Somasila, Vandana, Varalu 

Source: Siddiq et al., 2005 

Strategic research towards changing plant architecture and, thereby, enhancing the physiological 

efficiency was initiated with search for sources potential enough to enhance genetic yield level. 

Evaluation of genetic resources, available with the national and international institutions, aimed 

at identifying sources for various traits needed for development of ‘new plant type’. This has 

resulted in the isolation of several indica/ japonica cultivars of promise as listed in Table 11. 

Table 11: Donors for various traits being used for developing new plant type 

Trait Indica/ japonica Cultivars 

Heavy panicle Darinagan, Djawa serang, G1291, G1298, Ketan gebat, 

High density grains Badshabhog, Roupsail 

High harvest index T141, Vijaya 

Low photorespiration B76, Patnai 23 

High photosynthetic efficiency AC4491, Bam 3, Mahsuri, NS1281, Ptb10, T141, T90 

Prolonged grain filling BG380, BG90-2, Darinagan, IR65601-10-1-2,IR 65740-ACI-3 

Short stature IR5, MD2, Shend Nung 889-366 

Slow leaf senescence G110, Pusa 1021, Pusa 1266, indica x japonica derivatives 

Sturdy stem Gharbaran, Pusa 44-37, Sengkeu, Sipapak, Sirah Barch 

High translocation efficiency Ptb10 

Source: Swaminathan, 2002 

The rice improvement research operating in the country has generated many materials, which 

give good performance but do not show the required superiority to get released as cultivars. In 

addition, there are germplasm, developed and/or identified by scientists with one or more 

outstanding traits such as new sources of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, unique quality 

features, male sterility, induced mutants, cytogenetic stocks, etc. These germplasm may serve as


25 

genetic stocks in crop improvement programmes or are of academic importance. The ICAR has 

developed a system of germplasm registration with NBPGR as the nodal institute to recognize the 

accomplishments and efforts of scientists who identified or developed them, and to encourage the 

sharing of such germplasm with other rice researchers. 

(f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries 

There had been a liberal, exchange of genetic material among rice researchers around the globe 

particularly facilitated by the IRRI coordinated INGER programme. Many India bred varieties 

tested in the INGER nurseries have been directly released for general cultivation in other countries 

(Table 12). In all 33 elite breeding lines developed in India have been released as 46 varieties 

around the world. They include 25 in Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 in South Asia, 5 in Latin America 

and the Caribbean islands, 3 in South-East Asia, 2 in West and North Africa and one variety in 

East Africa. In addition, several elite breeding lines generated in India and identified to be promising 

in the AICRIP have also been used in many countries as donor parents for traits like insect-pest 

resistance, yield and quality. Global adoption of so many varieties of Indian origin gives a true 

measure of strength of Indian rice breeding programme. 

Table 12: Rice cultivars developed in India and released in other countries 

Country of Name/ Parentage Name Given Year of Ecosystem 

Release Designation Release 

Afghanistan CR 44-11 TKM6 x IR8 - 1975 Irrigated 

Afghanistan Cauvery TKM 6 x TN1 - 1975 Upland 

Afghanistan Padma T141 x TN1 - 1975 Irrigated 

Benin CO38 IR8 x CO25 - - Irrigated 

Benin RAU4072-13 IR1833-208- 

6-3 x Mahsuri 

RAU 407 1991 Upland 

Bhutan Barkat Shinei x China 971 Barkat 1992 Irrigated 

Brazil Seshu IR24 x T141 - 1984 Upland 

Burkina Faso Vikram IR8 x Siam 29 - 1979 Irrigated 

Burkina Faso RP4-2 T90 x IR8 - 1985 Irrigated 

Burkina Faso Vijaya T90 x IR8 - 1997 Rainfed 

Burundi Savithri Pankaj x Jagannath - - Irrigated 

Cambodia OR 142-99 Pankaj x Sigadis Sante-pheap 3 1992 Rainfed 

Cameroon Jaya TN1 x T141 - 1977 Irrigated 

China P.R. M 114 Mahsuri mutant 

3628 

8085 1981 Irrigated 

Cote d’Ivoire 

(Ivory coast) 

Jaya TN1 x T141 - - Irrigated 

Dominican IR2153-276-1 IR1541-102-6-3 x Juma 62 1986 Irrigated 

Republic -10-PR-509 IR24*4//O.nivara 

Ghana Vikram IR8 x Siam 29 Afife/GR 17 1982 Irrigated 

Iran Sona GEB24 x TN1 Amol 3 1982 Irrigated 

Iraq RP 2095-5-8-31 Vikram x Andrewsali - - Rainfed


Kenya AD9246 ADT31 x AD198 - - Lowland 

Malawai Kitish BU1 x CR115 Senga 1993 Irrigated 

Mali Rasi TN1 x CO29 IET 1444 1984 Rainfed 

Mali Jaya TN1 x T141 - - Irrigated 

Mali Vijaya T90 x IR8 - 1978 Irrigated 

Mauritiana Jaya TN1 x T141 - - Irrigated 

Myanmar Mahsuri mutant - Ma Naw 

Thu Kha 

1977 Irrigated 

Nepal CR 123-23 Dunghansali x 

Jayanti 

Durga 1978 Upland 

Nepal Rasi TN1 x CO29 Bindeswari 1981 Upland 

Nepal K39-96-1-1-1-2 CH1039 x IR580- 

19-2-3-3 

Khumal 3 - Irrigated 

Nepal IR 2298- 

PLPB-3-2-1-1B 

CICA4 x KULU Himali 1982 Irrigated 

Nepal IR 3941-4- CR126-42-5 Kanchen 1982 Irrigated 

PLP2B x IR2061213 

Pakistan Kitish BU1 x CR115 DR 82 1984 Irrigated 

Paraguay Kitish BU1 x CR115 CEA 1 1989 Irrigated 

Paraguay R22-2-10-1 IR22 x Sigadis CEA 3 1989 Irrigated 

Senegal Rasi TN1 x CO29 - 1981 Upland 

Senegal Jaya TN1 x T141 Jaya - Irrigated 

Tanzania BIET360 IR8 x CH45 - 1986 Irrigated 

Tanzania Rasi TN1 x CO29 - 1984 Upland 

Tanzania RP 143-4 IR8 x HR 19/ Katrain 1 1984 Rainfed 

IR 8 lowland 

Tanzania L 5P23 GEB24 x T(N)1 - - Irrigated 

Tanzania Sabarmati TN1 x Bas370// Subamati - Irrigated 

(BC5/55) Bas370 

Togo Rasi TN1 x CO29 - 1978 Upland 

Venezuela PR 106 IR8 x Peta 5// 

Belle Patna 

Araure 3 1984 Irrigated 

Vietnam Jaya TN1 x T141 - - Irrigated 

Zambia RTN 500-5-1 IR8 x RTN24 - - Irrigated 

(g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India 

Source: Prasad et al., 2001 

Rice is grown under different agro-climatic and management conditions. The weed flora also 

varies accordingly. The dominant weed species found in upland rice culture are listed in table 

below.


27 

Table 13 a: Dominant weed species found in upland rice culture 

State Dominant Weed Species 

Andhra Pradesh Amaranthus spinosus, Celosia argentea, Euphorbia heterophylla, Panicum sp. 

Bihar Alternifollia sp., Caesulia axillaris, Digeria sp., Physalis minima, Rungia repens 

Delhi Alternaria sessilis, Amaranthus gracilis, Cyperus diformis, Digeria arvensis, 

Justica sp., Leptochloa chinensis 

Karnataka Dinebera retroflexa, Paspalum conjugatum, Portulaca oleracea, Spilanthus 

alba 

N. E. Region Amaranthus spinosus, Bidens pilosa, Boerhaavia hispida, Eichornia colonum, 

Eupatorium odoratum, Galinsoga parviflora, Mimosa pudica, Phyllanthus 

niruri, Setaria pumila 

Tamil Nadu Chloris barbata, Croton balpandianum, C. sparciflorus, Dinebera arabica 

West Bengal Digitaria longifolia, Elytrophorus arteculata, Eragrostis interrupta, Setaria 

glauca 

Table 13 b: Dominant weeds found in puddled direct seeded and transplanted rice 

States Dominant Weeds 

Andhra Pradesh Cyperus difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea, Jussia suffructicosa, Marsilia minuta, 

Panicum sp. 

Assam Cuphea balsamona, Fissendocarpa linifolia, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum 

colonum, Paspalum conjugatum, Rotala indica 

Bihar Caesulia axillaris, Cyperus sp., Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Eclipta alba, E. 

hirta, Panicum repens, Rungia repense 

Gujarat Ammania baccifera, Caesulia axillaris, Cynotis sp. Ludwigia octovalvis, 

Panicum colonum, Sporobolus indicus 

Himachal Pradesh Ageratum conyzoides, Panicum elatum, Setaria glauca 

Karnataka Cyperus difformis, Lindernia parviflora, Panicum repens 

Madhya Pradesh Ammania baccifera, Caesulia axillaris, Cephalandra indica, Chloris barbata, 

Commelina benghalensis, Cynodon dactylon, Cynotis axillaris, Cyperus sp., 

Dinebra arabica, Elusine indica, Euphorbia sp., Lagasca mollis, Paspalum 

distichum 

New Delhi Commelina benghalensis, Eclipta alba, Leptochloa chinensis 

Orissa Aeschynomene americana, Commelina benghalensis, Cynodon dactylon, 

Cyperus esculentus, Ipomea aquatica, Marselia quadrifoliata, Oxalis 

corniculata 

Punjab Caesulia axillaris, Ischaemum rugosum 

Tamil Nadu Ammania baccifera, Cyperus difformis, C. iria, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eclipta 

prostrata, Fimbristylis sp., Marsilea minuta, Paspalum distictium 

Uttar Pradesh Fimbrisyilis sp., Lippia nodiflora, Paspalum fasciculatum, Phyllanthus niruri 

West Bengal Eichornia colonum, Ludwigia parviflora, Monochoria vaginalis, Oldenlandia 

dichotoma, Paspalum scorbiculatum, Sphenocdlea zeylanica


Table 13 c: Weed species commonly found in rainfed lowland rice 

Assam Echinochloa crusgalli, Fimbristylis miliacea, Jussia sufforocticosa, Ludwigia 

octovalvis, Monochoria vaginalis, Scirpus sp. 

Bihar Chara sp., Cyperus difformis, Echinochloa, E. crusgalli, Ipomea reptants, 

Paspalum scorbiculatum, Spirogyra sp. 

Himachal Pradesh Cyperus rotundus, Eichornia colonum, Panicum sp., Paspalum parapalodes, 

Setaria glauca 

Tamil Nadu Ammanea baccifera, Cyperus iria, C. difformis, Echornia colonum, Eclipta 

alba, Fimbristylis miliacea, Marsilea quadrifoliata, Monochoria vaginalis, 

Scirpus mucronatus, Sphaeranllus indicus 

Uttar Pradesh Chara zeylanica, Cyperus difformis, C. iria, Cyanodon dactylon, Eleocharia 

dulcis, Hydrilla verticilliata, Nymphaea stellata, Potamogeton sp., Salvania 

sp., Typha sp.

SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 


29 

Rice is the staple food for more than one and a half of the world population and accounts for more 

than 42% of food production. Thus the increased and sustained production of rice is fundamental 

to food security in India. The production advance in rice in the recent years has enabled selfsufficiency 

despite increase in population. In India, rice is grown in 43 million hectares in four 

major ecosystems: irrigated (19m ha), rainfed lowlands (14 m ha), flood prone (3 m ha) and 

rainfed upland (6 m ha). No other country in the world has such diversity in rice ecosystem. 

One of the important constraints in achieving higher rice yields is losses caused by pests. The 

common pests of rice are insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasma etc. Cultivation 

of high yielding dwarf rice cultivars since mid sixties, that necessitated the high input use including 

excess nitrogenous fertilizers and consequent microclimate increased the pest problems. The extent 

of losses due to these pests fluctuates widely depending upon the prevailing factors of abundance 

of these pests in a particular year/ season and the local agroclimatic conditions. Losses of about 

30% average cumulative were reported. 

The Natural Resources Institute (NRI) London has developed a methodology for ranking 

different pests and diseases affecting agricultural crops (Geddes and Lles, 1991). NRI carried out 

a study of pre-harvest pests in South Asia and the relative importance of pests was assessed in 30 

cropping systems zone. The NRI ranking of pests affecting rice is given below. 

Pest Rank 

Rice blast 1 

Yellow stem borer 2 

Bacterial leaf blight 3 

Brown plant hopper 4 

Root nematode 5 

Gall midge 6 

Green leaf hopper/ Rice tungro virus 7 

Leaf folder 8 

White backed plant hopper 9 

Rice hispa 10 

Sheath blight 11 

Source: Geddes and Lles (1991) 

The knowledge of rice pests has been greatly expanded during the last few decades. A brief 

summary of the important pests, their hosts/ vectors, geographical distribution, yield losses, 

variability, natural enemies/ biocontrol agents is given in Tables 15, 16 and 17.

Table 15: Important insect pests of rice in India 

Insect Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Remarks 

Scientific Name in India Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) 

Common Name 

Order: Family 

Affecting Different Stages of Insect 

Field Pests 

Brevennia rehi 

(Lindinger) 

Rice mealy bug 

Hemiptera: 

Pseudococcidae 

Chilo suppressalis 

(Walker) 

Striped rice stem 

borer 

Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae 

Oryza sativa, 

Saccharum 

officinarum, 

Sorghum bicolor 

Oryza sativa, 

Sorghum bicolor, 

Zea mays 

Andhra Pradesh, 

Bihar, Karnataka, 

Kerala, Maharashtra, 

Orissa, Tamil Nadu, 

West Bengal (CIE, 

1979) 


Bihar, Gujarat, 

Karnataka, Kerala, 

Maharashtra, Orissa, 

Punjab, Rajasthan, 

Tamil Nadu, Uttar 

Pradesh (including 

Uttranchal) (CAB 

International, 2005) 

Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: 

Eggs, nymphs, adults Rhopus fullawayi 

Predators affecting: 

Eggs, nymphs, adults: Anatrichus pygmaeus, 

Domomyza perspicax, Leucopis luteicornis 

(CAB International, 2005) 


Eggs: Anagrus optabilis, Telenomus dignus, 

Tetrastichus schoenobii, Trichogrammatoidea 

australicum, T. chilonis, T. dendrolimi, T. 

japonicum; 

Eggs, larvae: Chelonus munakatae, 

Larvae: Cotesia chilonis, C. flavipes, C. 

schoenobii, Eriborus sinicus, Stenobracon 

deesae, Sturmiopsis inferens, Temelucha 

biguttula; 

Larvae, pupae: Myosoma chinensis, 

Tetrastichus howardi, Tropobracon schoenobii 

Pupae: Trathala flavoorbitalis, Xanthopimpla 

punctata, X. stemmator 

Predator affecting: 

Adults: Argiope catenulate 

Pathogens affecting: 

Larvae: Beauveria bassiana, 

Nucleopolyhedrosis virus, Paecilomyces 

farinosus 

It may have serious effects during 

drought years and in sandy soils. 

Moderately high temperature is the 

key factor in stimulating an outbreak. 

Often found associated with Rice 

chlorotic streak virus. 

It is one of the most serious pests of 

rice in the Far East for many years. 

During the vegetative stage, larval 

feeding causes dead heart. The plants 

recover by growing new tillers. At the 

reproductive stage, feeding causes 

whitehead. The damage could reach 

100%. 

30 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA



Common Name Affecting Different Stages of Insect 

Order: Family 

Cnaphalocrocis 

medinalis 

(Guenée) 

Rice leaf folder 

Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae 

Oryza sativa, 


Triticum spp., T. 

aestivum, Zea 

mays 


Assam, Delhi, 

Haryana, Karnataka, 

Kerala, Madhya 

Pradesh, Maharashtra, 

Orissa, Punjab, Tamil 

Nadu, Uttar Pradesh 

(including Uttranchal) 

(Rajamma and Das, 

1969; Gargar and 

Katiyar, 1971; Khaire 

and Bhapkar, 1971; 

Yadava et al., 1972; 

Ramasubbaiah et al., 

1980; Chaturvedi and 

Mathur, 1981; 

Kushwaha and 

Sharma, 1981; Garg 

and Tandon, 1982; 

APPPC, 1987; CAB 



Eggs: Copidosoma, Copidosomopsis 

nacoleiae, Telenomus dignus 

Larvae: Apanteles angaleti, A. angustibasis, 

A. cypris, A. opacus, A. syleptae, Aphanogmus 

fijiensis, Cotesia flavipes, C. ruficrus, 

Barylypa apicala, Bracon gelechiae, B. 

hebetor, B. ricinicola, Cardiochiles 

philippinensis, Chaetexorista javana, 

Chelonus munakatae, Diatora lissonata, 

Elasmus brevicornis, E. claripennis, E. 

philippinensis, Goniozus indicus, G. 

triangulifer, G. triangulus, Leptobatopsis 

indica, Megaselia scalaris, Meteorus 

bacoorensis, Nemorilla floralis maculosa, 

Temelucha basimacula, T. biguttula, T. 

philippinensis, T. stangli, Tetrastichus 

schoenobii 

Larvae, pupae: Brachymeria excarinata, 

Eriborus argenteopilosus, E. sinicus, 

Ischnojoppa luteator, Trathala flavoorbitalis 

Pupae: Brachymeria lasus, B. tachardiae, 

Tetrastichus howardi, T. israelensis, 

Trichospilus pupivora, Xanthopimpla 

flavolineata 


Larvae: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Beauveria 

bassiana (white muscardine fungus) 

Outbreaks were reported in India, 

Bangladesh, China, Fiji, Japan, 

Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, 

Sri Lanka and Vietnam, (Pathak and 

Khan, 1994). In all the cases, yield 

losses were reported. 


31




Order: Family 

Dicladispa 

armigera (Olivier) 

Rice hispa, Paddy 

hispa 

Coleoptera: 

Chrysomelidae 

Oryza sativa 

Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands, Andhra 

Pradesh, Assam, 

Bihar, Haryana, 

Himachal Pradesh, 

Jammu and Kashmir, 



Manipur, Orissa, 


Tamil Nadu, Tripura, 

Uttar Pradesh 

(including 

Uttranchal), West 

Bengal (CIE, 1966; 

Acharya, 1967; 

Thakur et al., 1979; 

Pasalu and Tewari, 

1989; CAB 



Adults: Argiope catenulata 

Eggs: Carabidae (ground beetles) 

Different stages: Chlaenius bioculatus, 

Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Harmonia 

octomaculata (ladybird, maculate), Lycosa 

pseudoannulata, Solenopsis geminata 

(tropical fire ant) 


Eggs: Trichogramma 

Larvae: Bracon, B. hispae, Campyloneurus 

sp., Closterocerus cardigaster, Pediobius 

Pupae: Trichomalopsis apanteloctena, 


Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata, Rhignochoris 

fuscipes, Rhynocoris fuscipes 


Adults: Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria 

bassiana (CAB International, 2005) 

Infection of hispa eggs by B. bassiana also 

observed in field in India (Hazarika et al., 

1998). 

It has been a perpetual problem in 

Bangladesh and parts of India. In 

India, both rice crops, kharif and rabi, 

are subjected to sporadic outbreaks 

of D. armigera and may be severely 

attacked. Actual yield losses, have not 

yet been quantified. Annual yield loss 

estimates of 20% in Andhra Pradesh, 

17-20% in West Bengal, India (Pasalu 

and Tewari, 1989) have been 

reported. 





Order: Family 

Hieroglyphus 

banian (Fabricius) 

Rice grasshopper 

Orthoptera: 

Acrididae 

Hydrellia 

philippina Ferino 

Rice whorl maggot 

Diptera: 

Ephydridae 

Oryza sativa, 

Panicum 

miliaceum, 

Saccharum 



Zea mays 

Oryza sativa 


Islands, Bihar, Delhi, 

Gujarat, Haryana, 


Karnataka, Madhya 


Orissa, Punjab, 

Rajasthan, Tamil 


(including Uttranchal), 

West Bengal (Bhatia, 

1949; Diwakar 1972; 

Garg and Chaudhary, 

1979; Chatterjee and 

Debgoswami, 1981; 

Pradhan, 1983; Ahmad 

and Gangwar, 1984; 

Bhowmik and Haldar, 

1984; Shah and Garg, 

1986; Nayak and 

Gandhi, 1990; Mohan 

et al., 1991. 

Widespread 

throughout India 

(Thomas et al., 1971; 

CAB International, 

2005) 

Parasites/parasitoids affecting: 

Eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae, adults: 

Eutrombidium trigonum (grasshopper, mite, 

red) 

Eggs: Scelio hieroglyphi 

Predator: Mylabris pustulata (blister beetle, 

arhap) 


Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana, 

Entomophaga grylli (CAB International, 

2005). 


Eggs: Trichogramma, T. chilonis 

Larvae : Tetrastichus sp. 


Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata, Neoscona 

theisi , Oxyopes javanus 

Pathogen: Beauveria bassiana 

Outbreaks of H. banian in India have 

occurred on sugarcane in Gujarat 

(Vyas and Butani, 1985), on sorghum 

in Madhya Pradesh (Vyas et al., 1983) 

and on rice in West Bengal 

(Chatterjee and Debgoswami, 1981). 

In recent years this pest has generally 

been kept well under its economic 

injury level in India, hence no more 

recent loss estimates are available. It 

is involved in the mechanical 

transmission of Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. Oryzae, the causal 

agent of bacterial blight of rice. 

In south India, yield losses ranging 

from 20-30% have been reported on 

the first crop from April to September. 

However, infestation was less in the 

second crop (Thomas et al., 1971). 

33 

SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE




Order: Family 

Leptocorisa acuta 

Thunberg 

Rice seed bug 

Hemiptera:Coreidae 

Leucopholis 

lepidophora 

Blanchard 

White grub 

Coleoptera: 

Scarabaeidae 

Oryza sativa 

Arachis hypogaea, 

Areca catechu, 

Oryza sativa, 

Saccharum 

officinarum, Zea 

mays 

Assam, Bihar, Delhi, 



Madhya Pradesh, 


Rajasthan, Tripura, 




Bengal (CAB 


Karnataka, 

Maharashtra (Veeresh 

et al., 1982; Adsule 

and Patil, 1990, 1994) 

Entomophthora grylli (CAB International, 

2005).The nematodes, Gordius sp. and 

Mermis nigrescens, also parasitize H. 

banian (Nayar et al., 1976). 

Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: 

Eggs: Ooencyrtus papilionis 


Eggs: Homorocoryphus longipennis 

Nymphs, adults: Micraspis discolor, Neoscona 

theisi 

Pathogen affecting: 

Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB 

International, 2005). 

An unnamed tachinid parasitoid parasitizes L. 

acuta in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India 

(Ansari and Jacob, 1997). Field studies 

indicated that it could provide a high level of 

control and thus could be exploited as a 

potential biological control agent against L. 

acuta in other areas. 

In laboratory pathogenicity tests, the 

entomophilic nematodes Heterorhabditis 

indicus, Steinernema glaseri and S. feltiae 

were observed infecting L. lepidophora larvae 

(Poinar et al., 1992). Bacillus popilliae may 

cause 70.8% mortality in Larvae. 

Rice attacked by these bugs is 

reported to have unpleasant odour 

even after cooking. Yield losses upto 

40% have been recorded. It is a 

mechanical vector of Xanthomonas 

oryzae pv. oryzae, which causes 

bacterial leaf blight in India. Also 

involved in the transmission of sheath 

rot disease (Lakshmanan et al., 1992). 

Surveys in Maharashtra, India (1986- 

89) indicated that L. lepidophora 

caused damage to 25-100% of 

sugarcane, rice, maize, groundnuts 

and vegetables (Adsule and Patil, 

1990). 





Order: Family 

Lissorhoptrus 

oryzophilus 

Kuschel 

Rice water 

weevil 

Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae 

Melanitis leda 

ismene Cramer 

Rice butterfly 

Lepidoptera: 

Nymphalidae 

Mythimna 

separata 

Oryza sativa 

Oryza sativa 

Wide host range 

Present, introduced 

(CAB International, 

2005) 

Arunachal Pradesh, 


Maharashtra, 

Manipur, Orissa, Uttar 



Bengal (Katiyar et al., 

1976; Rai, 1978; 

Singh and Singh, 

1979; Singh, 1983; 

APPPC, 1987; Jana 

and Ghosh, 1994; 

Padmanaban et al., 

1990; CAB 







Larvae: Pantala flavescens 


Adults: 

Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine 

fungus), Metarhizium anisopliae (green 

muscardine fungus) 


Pupae: Trichospilus diatraeae 


Larvae : Amyotea malabarica, Andrallus 

spinidens, Eocanthecona furcellata 

Pathogen affecting: 

Larvae, pupae: Beauveria velata, Fusarium 

oxysporum, Serratia marcescens 

(Srivastava and Nayak, 1978; CAB 



Larvae, pupae: Barichneumon solitarius, 

Brachymeria lasus, Carcelia prima, Charops 

bicolor, Cuphocera iavana, Dolicholon 

Causes serious rice yield losses 

throughout its geographic range. It 

has spread throughout the Japan, with 

yield losses of 41 to 60%. From 1988 

to 1992, it has occupied more than 

50% of the total rice acreage in Korea 

Republic and has been predicted to 

spread throughout all of the ricegrowing 

areas. 

Generally does not cause appreciable 

damage. However, occasional high 

populations have been reported in 

Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (Katiyar et al., 

1976); Manipur, India (Singh and 

Singh, 1979). 

It causes the greatest damage to the 

rice panicles. In cases of severe 

infestation, damage may be upto 60% 

or more (Dale, 1994). However, its 

Walker 35 

SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE




Order: Family 

Rice armyworm 

Lepidoptera: 

Noctuidae 

Nephotettix 

nigropictus (Stål) 

Rice green 

leafhopper 

Hemiptera: 

Cicadellidae 

Cyperus spp., 

Oryza sativa, 

Panicum spp., 

Poa spp. 




Maharashtra, 



Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, 

Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (CIE, 1983; 

Thakur, 1984; Shukla 

et al., 1986; Greathead 

and Greathead, 1992; 

Patel and Patel, 1993) 




Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, 

Haryana, Himachal 

Pradesh, Karnataka, 



Manipur, Meghalaya, 

Orissa, Punjab, Tamil 


(including 


parasoxum, Drino inconspicua, Exorista 

fallax, E. xanthaspis, Metopius rufus, 

Palexorista solennis, Pseudogonia rufifrons, 

Pseudoperichaeta anomala, Theocarcelia 

oculata, Turanogonia chinensis 

Larvae: Compsilura, Cotesia parbhanii, C. 

ruficrus, Ovomermis albicans, Steinernema 

glaseri 

Eggs: Tetrastichus sp. 


Larvae: Calosoma indicum,Carabidae 

(ground beetles), Chlaenius bioculatus, 

Eocanthecona furcellata 


Larvae: Granulosis virus, Nucleopolyhedrosis 

virus (CAB International, 2005). 


Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus, Oligosita aesopi, 

O. naias 

Nymphs, adults: 

Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Halictophagus 

bipunctatus, Pipunculus mutillatus, 

Tomosvaryella oryzaetora, T. subvirescens 


Eggs, nymphs, adults: 

Amphiareus constrictus, Coccinella 

transversalis, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, 

Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Harmonia 

octomaculata, Tytthus parviceps 

incidence has declined to some extent 

during the past 30-40 years because 

of the expansion of irrigated rice 

cultivation. 

A vector for Rice tungro bacilliform 

virus (RTBV) and Rice tungro 

spherical virus (RTSV). Maintains 

epidemiological cycle between rice 

seasons by transmitting RTBV and 

RTSV particles to alternative weed 

hosts, which grow throughout the 

year. 





Order: Family 

Affecting Different Stages of Insect 

Nephotettix 

virescens (Distant) 

Green rice leaf 

hopper 

Hemiptera: 

Cicadellidae 

Oryza sativa 

Bengal (Pawar and 

Bhalla, 1974; Dhawan 

and Sajjan, 1977; Rao, 

1980; Ghose et al., 

1987; 

Balasubramanian et 

al., 1988; CAB 


Widespread in India 

(CIE 1971; CAB 



Argiope catenulate, Casnoidea indica, 

Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Stenonabis 

tagalicus 


Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana, 

Metarhizium anisopliae (Manjunath et 

al.,1978; Misra ,1980; Gupta and Pawar, 1989; 

CAB International, 2005) 


Eggs:Anagrus flaveolus, Oligosita sp., 

Paracentrobia andoi 

Nymphs: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, 

Tomosvaryella oryzaetora, T. subvirescens, 


Halictophagus bipunctatus 


Eggs : Microvelia douglasi, Tetragnatha spp., 

beetles, dragonflies and spiders. Two 

Gonatocerus sp. and a species of 

Paracentrobia 

Nymphs, adults : Argiope catenulata 

Eggs, nymphs, adults: Cyrtorhinus 

lividipennis 


Nymphs, Adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB 

Abstracts 1973-98; Gupta and Pawar, 1989; 

Das et al., 1990). 

It is amongst the most widespread and 

abundant pest of irrigated rice. About 

17-23 kg/ ha of grain yield was lost 

in five states of southern India during 

1990-1991 and an additional 15 to 24 

kg/ha to tungro (Ramasamy et al., 

1996). It transmits Rice tungro virus 

(RTV). Annual economic losses due 

to tungro throughout Asia are US$ 

1500 million (Herdt, 1988). Also 

transmits Rice yellow dwarf 

phytoplasma, Rice bunchy stunt 

virus, Rice gall virus and Rice 

transitory yellowing virus (CAB 



37




Order: Family 

Nezara viridula 

(Linnaeus) 

Green shield bug, 

Green stink bug 

Hemiptera: 

Pentatomidae 

Nilaparvata 

lugens Stål 

Brown 

planthopper (BPH) 

Hemiptera: 

Fulgoroidea 

Wide host 

range 

Oryza spp., O. 

sativa, Zizania 


Arunachal Pradesh, 



Karnataka, Madhya 


Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil 


(including 


Bengal (Datta and 

Chakravarty, 1977; 

Singh et al., 1977; 

Saha and Saharia, 

1983; Dhamdhere et 

al., 1984; Bhalani and 

Bharodia, 1988; CAB 




Pradesh, Arunachal 

Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, 


Pradesh, Punjab, 



Maharashtra, 

Meghalaya, Orissa, 



Eggs: Psix striaticeps, Ooencyrtus papilionis 

Predators: Nabis capsiformis, Oecophylla 

smaragdina, Sycanus collaris 

Pathogens: Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria 

bassiana 

A considerable diversity of natural enemies 

attack N. viridula in various stages of its 

development. No product has been developed 

for field use (CAB International, 2005). 


Eggs: 

Anagrus flaveolus, A. optabilis, A. perforator, 

Nymphs, Adults: 

Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Elenchus japonicus, 

Haplogonatopus apicalis, H. orientalis, 

Pipunculus mutillatus, Tomosvaryella 

oryzaetora 


Eggs, nymphs, adults: Cyrtorhinus 

lividipennis, Tytthus parviceps 

Blemishes reduce quality and 

marketability of the crop. It is known 

to carry spores of fungal diseases 

from plant to plant, and can also 

transfer plant pathogens mechanically 

during feeding. It transmits spores of 

fungal species of Nematospora, 

which causes internal rots. 

The most serious insect pest of rice 

in Asia. It was a minor rice pest until 

the mid-1960s (Pathak and Dhaliwal, 

1981). However, it assumed the status 

of the most destructive pest in the 

1970s (Heinrichs and Mochida, 

1984), after the introduction of 

Taichung Native 1 in 1964 and IR8 

in 1968.The yield loss in India was 

1.1-32.5% (Jayaraj et al., 1974). It 

assumed an epidemic form in India 





Order: Family 

Nymphula 

depunctalis 

Guenee 

Rice case worm 

Lepidoptera: 

Oryza sativa 



Bengal (Banerjee, 

1971; Khaire and 

Bhapkar, 1971; Das et 

al., 1972; Abraham, 

1975; Bhalla and 

Pawar, 1975; 

ChannaBasavanna et 

al., 1976; Pawar and 

Banerjee, 1976; Pawar 

and Bhalla, 1977; 

Chatterjee, 1978; 

Natarajan, 1978; Nath 

and Sen, 1978; Dyck 

and Thomas, 1979; 

Kalode and Krishna, 

1979; Natarajan et al., 

1988; Rizvi and Singh, 

1983; Thakur et al., 

1979; CAB 



Assam, Bihar, 



Maharashtra, 



Nymphs: Carabidae (ground beetles) 

Nymphs, adults: Argiope catenulata Lycosa 

pseudoannulata, Microvelia douglasi 

atrolineata, Tetragnatha mandibulata, T. 

sutherlandi 



Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae 

(CAB International, 2005). Gautam (1998) 

also listed Parasites Echthrodelphax sp. 

(attacking all stages), Haplogonatopus sp. 

(attacking all stages), Pseudogonatopus sp. 

(attacking nymph, adult) 

Predators Neoscona nautical (attacking 

nymph) 


Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum 


Adults: Argiope catenulata (CAB 

International, 2005). The parasitic wasps 

Pediobius viggianii and P. ni are recorded 

as larval parasites in northern India 

in 1973 and caused extensive damage 

in Kerala. Following an outbreak in 

1973-74, heavy losses in yields 

occurred, as a result of grassy stunt 

(reported for the first time in India). 

It is a vector for Rice ragged stunt 

virus and Grassy shoot virus (Rivera 

et al., 1966).Three biotypes are 

known (Pasalu and Katti, 2004) 

In Madhya Pradesh, India, P. 

stagnalis damaged 38 to 94% of 

leaves in rice fields and the combined 

infestation of this pest with the rice 

leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis 

medinalis) caused an overall yield 


39




Order: Family 

Crambidae 

Orseolia oryzae 

(Wood-Mason) 

Mani 

Rice gall fly 

Diptera: 

Cecidomyiidae 

Oxya chinensis 

(Thunberg) 

Rice grasshopper 

Orthoptera: 

Oryza sativa 

Gossypium spp., 

Oryza sativa, 

Panicum 

miliaceum, 

Phragmites 


Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (Viraktamath 

et al., 1975; CAB 




Pradesh, Bihar, 



Maharashtra, 


Punjab, Tamil Nadu, 

Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (CAB 


Karnataka, Sikkim 

(Thonkadarya and 

Devaiah, 1975; 

Thakur, 1984) 

(Khan, 1996). 


Eggs, larvae: 

Platygaster oryzae 

Larvae : Eurytoma setitibia, Propicroscytus 

mirificus, 

Pupae: Neanastatus cinctiventris, N. oryzae 


Larvae: 

Carabidae (ground beetles), Nabis capsiformis 

Larvae, pupae: 

Casnoidea indica 



Pantala flavescens 

loss of 80% (Patel and Khatri, 2001). 

A major pest in Asia. Average crop 

losses of 50-100% over wide areas 

have been reported. Epidemics of this 

pest occurred in cycles of 3-5 years 

causing 100% damage of rice plants. 

Pathak and Dhaliwal (1981) also 

reported that O. oryzae was spreading 

in the Indian subcontinent and was 

first recorded in Uttar Pradesh in 

1971. In 1989, a serious outbreak 

occurred in Andhra Pradesh (Rao and 

Rao, 1989). 

So far, six biotypes of gall midge have 

been reported throughout India 

(Pasalu and Katti, 2004). 

In the rice field, 2-4 adults per m² can 

reduce output by 6.8-17.8%. In India, 

O. chinensis has been listed as among 

the five most important rice pests in 

the Sikkim Hills (Thakur, 1984). 





Order: Family 

Acrididae 

Pelopidas mathias 

(Fabricius) 

Rice skipper 

Lepidoptera: 

Hesperiidae 

Rhopalosiphum 

rufiabdominale 

(Sasaki,) 

Rice root aphid 

australis, Sorghum 

bicolor, Triticum 

spp., Zea mays 

Hordeum vulgare, 

Oryza sativa, 

Saccharum 



Triticum aestivum, 

Zea mays 



Oryza sativa, 

Prunus, 

Saccharum 



Goa, Jammu and 

Kashmir, Karnataka, 


Nagaland, Manipur, 


Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, 

Uttar Pradesh 


West Bengal (Jandu, 

1943; Usman, 1954; 

Fawar, 1956; Sengupta, 

1959; Birat, 1963; Sen 

and Chakravarti, 1970; 

Christudas et al., 1971; 

Jotwani, 1975; 

Maninder and Varma, 

1982; APPPC, 1987; 

Ghose et al., 1987) 

Bihar, Himachal 

Pradesh, Kerala, 





Larvae: 

Apanteles javanensis, Brachymeria lasus, 

Cotesia baoris, Halidaya luteicornis, 

Halydaia luteicornis, Trichomalopsis 

apanteloctena, Xanthopimpla punctata 


Brachymeria, B. excarinata, Charops bicolor, 

Ischnojoppa luteator 

Eggs: 

Trichogramma chilonis, Trichogrammatoidea 

bactrae 


Eggs, larvae, pupae: 

Amyotea malabarica, Paederus fuscipes 


Nymphs, adults: Aphelinus (aphelinid) 


Nymphs, adults: Lecanicillium lecanii 

A very large insect and a single larva 

can cause high amount of defoliation. 

Local outbreaks, however, are rare. 

Its wide host range gives it a good 

chance of becoming established in 

new areas. 

It is an economic pest of upland rice, 

particularly in Japan, but is not a pest 

of irrigated rice anywhere in the 

world. Singh (1977) presented 

evidence of R. rufiabdominalis being 


41




Order: Family 

Hemiptera: 

Aphididae 

Scirpophaga 

incertulas Walker 

Yellow rice 

stemborer 

Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae 


Solanum 

melongena, 

Triticum spp. 

Oryza sativa 

Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (CAB 



Assam, Bihar, 






Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil 


(including 


Bengal (CAB 


Meagre information is available concerning 

natural enemies of this aphid, largely due to 

its subterranean habitat (CAB International, 

2005). Ding (1985) found 57.4-100% 

parasitism by a braconid parasite, Aphidius sp., 

in a study of upland rice in China. 


Larvae, pupae: Amauromorpha accepta 

accepta, A. accepta schoenobii, Eriborus 

sinicus, Ischnojoppa luteator, Rhaconotus 

schoenobivorus, Temelucha philippinensis, T. 

stangli, Tetrastichus howardi, Xanthopimpla 

stemmator 

Larvae: Chelonus munakatae, Cotesia 

chilonis, C. flavipes, Elasmus albopictus, 

Exoryza schoenobii, Myosoma chinensis, 

Stenobracon nicevillei, Tropobracon 

schoenobii 

Eggs: Telenomus dignoides, T. dignus, T. 

rowani, Tetrastichus schoenobii, 

Trichogramma chilonis, T. exiguum, T. 

japonicum 


Eggs: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Harmonia 

octomaculata, Homorocoryphus longipennis 

Adults: Argiope catenulate, Lycosa 

pseudoannulata, Oxyopes javanus, O. pandae 


Larvae, pupae: Beauveria bassiana 

a vector of Maize mosaic virus in 

India. 

It is one of the most destructive pests 

of rice in India. The larval feeding at 

vegetative stage causes the death of a 

central leaf whorl, the deadheart and 

at the reproductive stage may cause 

death of the emerging panicle the 

whitehead. S. incertulas has a high 

potential to cause significant yield 

losses (Islam, 1990; Islam and Karim, 

1999). The reported yield losses in 

different areas of India vary from 3 

to 95%. 





Order: Family 

Sogatella furcifera 

(Horváth) 

White-backed rice 

planthopper 

Hemiptera: 

Delphacidae 

Spodoptera 

mauritia 

Oryza sativa 


Oryza sativa, 









Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (Fletcher, 

1916, 1917; Berg, 

1960; Atwal et al., 

1967; Chatterjee, 

1971; Pawar and 

Bhalla, 1974; Chhabra 

et al., 1976; 

Kushwaha and Singh, 

1986; Saha, 1986; 

Gubbaiah et al., 1987; 

Panda and Shi, 1988; 

Chakraborty et al., 

1990; Krishnaiah et 

al., 1996; 

Ambikadevi et al., 

1998; CAB 


Andman and Nicobar 

Islands, Arunachal 


Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus, A. frequens, A. 

optabilis, A. perforator, Oligosita naias 

(Prakasarao, 1969) 


Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Elenchus 

japonicus,Haplogonatopus apicalis, H. 

orientalis 


Eggs, nymphs: 

Carabidae (ground beetles) 

Nymphs, Adults: Argiope catenulate, 

Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Paederus 

fuscipes 

Eggs, nymphs, adults: 

Cyrtorhinus lividipennis 

Different Stages: Casnoidea indica, 

Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Clubiona abbottii, 

C. drassodes, Marpissa mandali, Micraspis 

discolor, Tytthus chinensis 

Pathogens: Beauveria bassiana (CAB 

International, 2005). Gautam (1998) has also 

listed parasites Echthrodelphax sp. (all stages) 

Haplogonatopus sp. (all stages) 

Pseudogonatopus sp. (nymph, adult) 


Eggs: Telenomus remus, Tetrastichus 

A major pest of rice in tropics and 

subtropics in Asia. Under favourable 

conditions, it produces several 

generations causing ‘hopperburn’. A 

serious outbreak was reported in 

Pakistan in 1978, in the northwest of 

West Malaysia in May 1979, and in 

India in 1982 (Khan and Kushwaha, 

1991). In May-June 1985, it severely 

damaged rice for the first time in 

Assam, India, where heavily infested 

fields were hopperburned. 

Its sudden outbreaks can result in 

serious damage, sometimes with the 


43




Order: Family 

Boisduval 

Paddy armyworm, 

Paddy swarming 

caterpillar 

Lepidoptera: 

Noctuidae 

Storage Pests 

Corcyra 

cephalonica 

(Stainton) 

Rice meal moth, 

Rice moth 

Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae 

Saccharum 

officinarum, Zea 

mays and also 

number of hosts 

belonging to 

family 

Brassicaceae and 

Poaceae 

Manihot 

esculenta, 

Myristica 

fragrans, Oryza 

sativa, Panicum 

miliaceum 

Pennisetum 

glaucum , 



aestivum, Zea 

mays, stored 

products 

Pradesh, Andhra 







Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (CAB 

Abstracts, 1973-1998; 


2005) 




Bihar, Chandigarh, 

Delhi, Gujrat, 





Punjab, Meghalaya, 

Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


schoenobii, Trichogramma chilonis 

Larvae: Chelonus insularis, Cotesia flavipes, 

C. marginiventris, C. ruficrus, Cuphocera 

iavana, Lespesia archippivora, Peribaea 

orbata, Pseudogonia rufifrons 

Predator 

Andrallus spinidens 

Pathogen 

Nucleopolyhedrosis virus 


Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum, 

T. chilonis 

Larvae: Bracon brevicornis, B. hebetor 


Eggs, larvae: Acaropsellina docta, Blattisocius 

keegani, B. tarsalis 

Larvae: Amphibolus venator, Sycanus affinis 

(CAB International, 2005). A technique of 

using gelatin capsules containing eggs of C. 

cephalonica parasitized by T. chilonis for the 

release of adult trichogrammatids has been 

developed in India (Maninder et al., 1998). 

loss of the entire paddy crop. Few 

major outbreaks have been recorded 

in equatorial South-East Asia 

(Rothschild, 1969). According to 

Dale (1994), this insect is a sporadic 

pest causing upto 20% loss in rice 

yield. 

The larval feeding causes the 

formation of webs in the material. The 

webbing formed by the larvae is 

noticeably more dense and tough. In 

cases of heavy infestation the food 

material becomes tightly matted 

together with webbing, cocoons, cast 

skins and frass. Such contamination 

of food may be of greater economic 

importance than larval feeding. It is 

used as a substitute host for breeding 

parasitoids. 





Order: Family 

Rhizopertha 

dominica 

(Fabricius) 

Lesser grain borer 

Coleoptera: 

Bostrichidae 

Sitophilus oryzae 

(Linnaeus) 

Rice weevil 

Coleoptera: 

Dryophthoridae 

Sitotroga 

cerealella 

(Olivier) 

Angoumois grain 

Avena sativa, 


Oryza sativa, 

Panicum spp., 

Pennisetum spp., 



aestivum, T. 

turgidum, Zea 

mays, stored 

products 

Manihot 

esculenta, Oryza 

sativa, Sorghum 


spp., T. aestivum, 

T. spelta, Zea 

mays, stored 

products 

Avena sativa, 


Oryza spp., O. 

sativa, Pennisetum 

glaucum, Secale 

Bengal (CAB 


Widespread (Sinha 

and Sinha, 1990; CAB 


Present in India, found 

in all warm and 

tropical parts of the 

world, but it may also 

be found in temperate 

climates (CAB 



Islands, Assam, Bihar, 

Delhi, Gujarat, 


Maharashtra, 


Eggs: Pyemotes tritici 

Larvae: Anisopteromalus calandrae 


Eggs: Acaropsellina docta, Tenebroides 

mauritanicus 

Eggs, larvae, nymphs pupae, adults: 

Xylocoris flavipes 

R. dominica is very susceptible to B. 

thuringiensis var. tenebrionis with over 75% 

mortality (CAB International, 2005). 



Anisopteromalus calandrae 



Acaropsellina docta 


Eggs: 

Trichogramma spp., T. evanescens, T. maidis, 

T. minutum, T. pretiosum, T. semblidis, T. 

telengai 

The larvae and adults consume the 

seed and cause both quantitative and 

qualitative losses. 

One of the most destructive primary 

pests of stored cereals. It can attack 

cereal plants in the fields. Feeding 

results both in quantitative and 

qualitative losses. The maximum 

weight loss caused to single kernels 

of rice by individual larvae was 57%. 

Weight losses up to 30-40% may 

occur in storage. 

It attacks grain in the field as well as 

in storage, causing an estimated 

overall yield loss of upto 30% (Singh 

and Benazet, 1975). Stored rice 

(unhusked) revealed infestation level 


45




Order: Family 

moth, 

Rice grain moth 

Lepidoptera: 

Gelechiidae 

cereale, Sorghum 


spp., T. aestivum, 

T. spelta, Zea 

mays, Zizania 

palustris 



Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (Girish et al., 

1974; Bhardwaj et al., 

1977; Champ and 

Dyte, 1977; Upadhyay 

et al., 1979; Borah 

and Mohon, 1982; 

Prakash and Kauraw, 

1982; Gupta, 1983; 

Ilyasa et al., 1983; 

Pande and Singh, 

1983; Pajni and 

Mehta, 1986; Padwal- 

Desai et al., 1987; 

Dhaliwal et al., 1989; 

Ramashrit and Mishra, 

1989; Sinha and 

Sinha, 1992) 

Larvae: Bracon hebetor 

Eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae, adults: 

Pyemotes tritici (CAB International, 2005). 

upto 88%. The eggs of S. cerealella 

have been used extensively to rear the 

predatory chrysopid for biologica1 

control of other pests. 


Table 16: Important nematode pests of rice in India 

Nematode 

Scientific Name 

Common name 

Family 

Aphelenchoides 

besseyii 

Christie 

White tip 

nematode of rice 

Aphelenchoididae 

Ditylenchus 

angustus Filipjev 

Rice stem 

nematode 

ufra disease 

Anguinidae 

Heterodera oryzae 

Luc & Berdon 

Brizuela, 

Hosts (Major) 

Fragaria 

ananassa, 

Oryza sp., 

O. glaberrima, 

O. sativa 

Oryza 

(generic level), 

O. sativa 

Oryza sativa 

Distribution 




Punjab, Kerala, 


Maharashtra, 

Meghalaya, Orissa, 


Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (Prasad et. al., 

1987; CAB 


Assam, Maharashtra, 

Orissa, Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Bengal (Chatterjee 

1984; Ray et al., 

1987; Roy, 1987; 

Patil, 1998; CAB 


Assam, Kerala, Orissa 

(Rao and Jayaprakash, 

1977) 

Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ 

predators, pathogens) Affecting the 

Nematode 

Arachnula impatiens, Vampyrella vorax 

Not reported 

Pathogens 

Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium 

blotch) 

Remarks 

Economically very important and seedtransmitted. 

More than 20 races known 

world over. Severe symptoms reported 

in field but accurate yield losses 

lacking. Computed losses of 0.2-10% 

reported. It has been reported in 12.8% 

of rice seed lots with infection levels 

ranging from 2-82% within lots. 

However, losses of upto 50% have 

been reported in upland rice in Brazil 

(CAB International, 2005). 

In India, yield losses in rice have been 

estimated to range from 10 to 15% in 

West Bengal and 30% in Assam, 50% 

in Uttar Pradesh (Rao et al., 1986; 

Prasad et al., 1987). It occurs in 20- 

80% of rice in West Bengal 

(Chakrabarti et al., 1985). Not a seed 

borne disease. Its distribution is 

becoming more restricted (Prot, 1993). 

The incidence of cyst nematode results 

in a general decline in plant growth and 

vigour. The cysts remain in the field 


47

Nematode 



Family 

Rice cyst 

nematode 

Heteroderidae 

Heterodera 

oryzicola Rao & 

Jayaprakash 

Rice cyst 

Heteroderidae 

Hirschmanniella 

oryzae (van Breda 

de Haan) Luc & 

Goodey 

Rice root 

nematode 

Pratylenchidae 

Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ 


Nematode 

Oryza sativa 

Oryza sativa 

Goa, Haryana, Kerala, 



West Bengal (Koshy 

et al., 1987; Prasad et 

al., 1987; CAB 



Assam, Bihar, 


Pradesh, Jammu and 

Kashmir, Kerala, 




Uttar Pradesh 

(including 


Not reported 

Predators: Mononchoides fortidens, 

Mononchoides longicaudatus (Greathead 

and Greathead, 1992) 

Remarks 

and liberate the larvae in the soil for 

multiplication. Eggs may hatch from 

egg masses after 9 months and form 

cysts after 2 years. Once hatched, 

juveniles can only survive in the soil 

for about 3 weeks, slightly longer in 

anaerobic conditions. The economic 

impact of H. oryzae has not been 

assessed. 

Yield losses are not well documented 

as the nematode generally occurs in 

association with other species. The 

nematode caused upto 56% reduction 

in the growth of rice plants grown in 

pots. Yield losses are not documented 

as it occurs in association with other 

species. 

Hirschmanniella spp. infest 58% of the 

world’s rice fields, causing 25% yield 

losses. However, there are discrepancies 

in yield loss estimates as it is not always 

solely attributable to the nematodes and 

also influenced by soil fertility, age of 

the plant, number of crops and by 

flooding, and climatic conditions. The 

root harbour large number of 

nematodes. The rice plants are stunted 

with fewer tillers and poor grain filling 


Nematode 



Family 

Hoplolaimus 

indicus Sher 

Lance nematode 

Hoplolaimidae 



Nematode 

Oryza sativa 

Bengal (Mathur and 

Prasad, 1971; CAB 



Gujrat, Haryana, 



Kerala, Karnataka, 


Maharashtra, Manipur, 


Rajasthan, Sikkim, 


Uttar Pradesh 


West Bengal (Birat, 

1965; Banerji and 

Banerji, 1966; Gupta 

and Gupta, 1967; Das 

et al., 1970; Khan and 

Chawla, 1975; Hasan et 

al., 1976; Krishnappa 

et al., 1980; Phukan 

and Sanwal, 1980; 

Zoological Survey of 

India, 1983; 

Anonymous, 1984; 

Darekar et al., 1992; 

Sharma and Ali, 1993; 

Pathogen 

Catenaria anguillula 

(Greathead and Greathead, 1992) 

Remarks 

may cause 10-36% yield loss. It survives 

in moist as well as dry soil. 

Reduction in rice yield is upto 25% and 

decrease in protein content of grain by 

2.9% reported. The nematode survives 

in soil and root debris. The 

phytosanitary risk is low, with the most 

likely mode of spread being through 

infected plant roots/ soil. 


49

Nematode 



Family 

Meloidogyne 

graminicola 

Golden & 

Birchfield 

Rice root knot 

nematode 

Meloidogynidae 

Meloidogyne 

incognita 

(Kofoid & White) 

Root-knot 

nematode 

Meloidogynidae 



Nematode 

Oryza sativa 

Abelmoschus 

esculentus, 

Capsicum 

annuum, Carica 

papaya, Coffea, C. 

arabica, Hibiscus 

cannabinus, 

Lactuca sativa, 

Lycopersicon 

esculentum, 

Mangifera indica, 

Sundararaj and Mehta, 

1993; Hazarika, 1994; 

Nath et al., 1995) 

Assam, Delhi, 

Haryana, Punjab, 


Orissa, Tripura, Uttar 



Bengal (CAB 





Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, 

Chandigarh, Delhi, 



Punjab, Jammu and 




Pathogen 


blotch). 

Pathogens 

Aspergillus niger (collar rot), Aureobasidium 

pullulans (blue stain: wood), Cochliobolus 

lunatus (head mould of grasses, rice and 

sorghum), Corticium rolfsii, Fusarium 

oxysporum,F.oxysporum f.sp. ciceris 

(Fusarium wilt of chickpea), Nectria 

haematococca (dry rot of potato), 


blotch), Paecilomyces lilacinus (biocontrol: 

nematodes), Pasteuria penetrans, 

Remarks 

In upland rice, there is an estimated 

reduction of 2.6% in grain yield for 

every 1000 nematodes present around 

young seedlings. The losses are highly 

significant in case of infection of young 

crop. Upto 16 % loss has been reported. 

With every increase of a thousand 

larvae of the nematode in the inoculum, 

the grain yield was reduced by 2.6%. 

Soil temperature of 23.5 o C and below 

are favourable to the formation of root 

knots and to the production of egg 

masses. Nematode activity is more 

pronounced in soils with acidic pH. 

Most widespread and probably the 

most serious plant parasitic nematode 

pest of tropical and subtropical regions 

throughout the world. It is widely 

endemic in subtropical and tropical 

regions. 


Nematode 



Family 

Pratylenchus 

indicus Das 

Root lesion 

nematode 

Pratylenchidae 



Nematode 

Medicago sativa, 

Oryza sativa, 

Phaseolus spp. , 

P. vulgaris, and 



families 

Cucurbitaceae, 

Fabaceae, 

Solanaceae 

Arachis hypogaea, 

Capsicum annuum, 

Feijoa sellowiana, 

Nicotiana tabacum, 

Oryza sativa, 

Psidium guajava, 

Saccharum 



Zea mays and 



Solanaceae. 


Orissa, Rajasthan, 

Sikkim, Tripura, Tamil 



West Bengal (Mathur et 

al., 1970; Raveendran 

and Nadakal, 1975; Sen 

and Das Gupta, 1976; 

Haryana Agricultural 

University, 1980; 

Tiwari and Dave, 1985; 

Prasad, 1986; Mathur 

and Khera, 1991; 

Salam, 1991; Bhat and 

Kaul, 1994) 


Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, 


Pradesh, Punjab, 






(including 


Bengal (CAB 


Thanatephorus cucumeris, Serratia 

marcescens, Trichoderma viride, Verticillium 

chlamydosporium 

Not reported 

Remarks 

A migratory endoparasite of the root 

cortex. All stages are found in the 

outer parenchyma cells and never in 

the vascular tissues. Crop losses upto 

48.5 % in grain yield have been 

reported. These nematodes survive in 

soil and root debris. Control 

measures may result in 13-55% 

increase in yield. 


51

Table 17: Important diseases of rice in India 

Pathogen 


Viruses 

Rice tungro 

bacilliform virus 

(RTBV) 

Tungro 

Transmission Geographical 


Nephotettix 

virescens 

(synonym 

N. impicticeps); 

N. cincticeps, 

N. nigropictus, N. 

malayanus and 

Recilia dorsalis 







Tripura, Uttar Pradesh 

(including 

Uttaranchal), West 

Bengal (Mishra, 1977; 

Anjaneyulu, 1986; 


2005) 

Host Range Remarks 

Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colona, E. 

crus-galli, E. glabescens, Eleusine indica, 

Leersia hexandra, Leptochloa chinensis, 

Oryza sativa, Panicum repens 

Tungro reached an epidemic level in 

West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh 

in 1969, and in Kerala in 1973-1974 

and in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and 

West Bengal 90,000 ha of land was 

affected (Anjaneyulu et al., 1994). In 

1984-1985, a tungro outbreak in Tamil 

Nadu and Andhra Pradesh led to an 

estimated yield loss of 20,000 t in 

Tamil Nadu, and 49,000 ha in Andhra 

Pradesh. In 1998, an outbreak of 

tungro-like yellow stunt syndrome 

occurred in Punjab where yield losses 

were estimated at 30-100% (Azzam et 

al., 1999). Four biological variants of 

RTBV (L, G1, G2 and Ic) have been 

described based on their characteristic 

symptoms in rice cultivars FK 135 and 

TN1 (Cabauatan et al., 1995). RTBV 

isolates from South Asia (India, Sri 

Lanka and Bangladesh) differ in 

sequence from those from South-East 

Asia (Fan et al., 1996; Druka and Hull, 

1998). 

There is microvariation in the 

sequences of isolates from the 

Philippines and other countries 

(Azzam et al., 2000a). 


Pathogen 


Rice tungro 

spherical virus 

(RTSV) 

Tungro 

Rice grassy stunt 

virus (RGSV) 

Grassy stunt 



Nephotettix 

virescens 

(synonym 

N. impicticeps), 

N. cincticeps, 

N. nigropictus, 

N. malayanus and 

Recilia dorsalis 

Nilaparvata 

lugens, N. bakeri 

and N. muiri 








(including 


Bengal (Mishra, 1977; 

Anjaneyulu, 1986) 

Kerala, Tamil Nadu 

(Ghosh and 

Venkataraman, 1994; 


2005) 

Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colona, E. 

crus-galli, E. glabescens, Leersia hexandra, 

Leptochloa chinensis, Oryza sativa, Panicum 

repens 

Oryza glaberrima, 

O. rufipogon, O. sativa 


In south and southeast Asia, tungro, a 

composite disease caused by RTSV 

and RTBV, is a major threat to stable 

rice production in irrigated areas 

(Hibino, 1989a). Several serological 

variants of RTSV have been reported 

(Druka et al., 1996; Druka & Hull, 

1998). The electrophoretic mobility of 

RTSV CP3 of Indian isolate differed 

from that of Southeast Asian isolates 

(Druka et al., 1996). Molecular 

techniques reveal much microvariation 

in the sequences encoding CP1 and 

CP2 (Azzam et al., 2000b). 

RGSV incidence was high during 1973- 

74 and in 1981 in Kerala; in 1972 and 

1984 in Tamil Nadu. Since 1984, the 

incidence has been generally low in 

Asia. In Kerala, 15,000 ha were affected 

by RGSV (Gopalakrishnan et al., 1973; 

Anjaneyulu, 1974; Kulshrestha et al., 

1974; Santhakumari et al., 1982) and 

yield losses due to the virus and plant 

hoppers were estimated to be $20 

million (Dyck and Thomas, 1979). 

Different strains of RGSV viz., GSV1 

and GSV2 in the Philippines, wilted 

stunt virus (GSW), grassy stunt B 

(GSB), grassy stunt Y (GSY) isolates 

in Taiwan, GSV 2-like strains in India, 

Indonesia and Thailand are reported 


53

Pathogen 


Rice ragged stunt 

virus (RRSV) 

Ragged stunt 

Phytoplasma 

Rice yellow dwarf 

phytoplasma 

Yellow dwarf 



Nilaparvata 

lugens 

Nephotettix 

cincticeps, N. 

nigropictus, N. 

virescens, N. 

malayanus and 

N. parvus 


West Bengal 

(Heinrichs, 1978; 

Ghosh et al., 1979; 

Mishra, 1979; 

Narayanasamy and 

Baskaran, 1980; CAB 






Tamil Nadu (Arjunan 

et al., 1985; Singh, 

1987; Muniyappa et 

al., 1988; Pun and 

Oryza latifolia, O. nivara, O. sativa 

Oryza sativa 


(Hibino, 1989b). Serologically, a 

Japanese isolate was indistinguishable 

from strains 1 and 2 (Hibino et al., 1985) 

and closely related to severe strains 

from India (Mariappan et al., 1984) and 

Thailand (Chettanachit et al., 1985), and 

to GSB and GSW isolates from Taiwan 

(Hibino, 1986). Different variants of 

RGSV were observed in the Philippines. 

Their relationship with existing strains 

and the Taiwan isolates has not been 

determined (Miranda et al., 1991). 

RRSV is sporadically a very serious 

problem of rice in Thailand, Malaysia, 

the Philippines, India and Indonesia 

where yields can be reduced by 50- 

100% (CAB International, 2005). 

No strains reported. 

In Karnataka, rice yellow dwarf was 

more severe in the ratoon than the main 

crop (Muniyappa et al., 1988). Reddy 

and Jeyarajan (1990) screened 36 

cultivars for resistance and suggested 

the presence of different strains of the 

pathogen in Tamil Nadu. 


Pathogen 


Bacteria 

Acidovorax 

avenae subsp. 

avenae (Manns) 

Willems 

Bacterial brown 

stripe 

Xanthomonas 

oryzae pv. oryzae 

(Ishiyama) Swings 

et al. 

Bacterial leaf 

blight 



Seed 

Seed 

Das, 1992; CAB 


Bihar, Delhi, 

Maharashtra, Punjab, 



Uttaranchal) (CAB 






Bihar, Delhi, Goa, 





Maharashtra, 


Mizoram, Nagaland, 




(including 



Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum, 

Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays 

Leptochloa chinensis, Oryza sativa 

Bacterial brown stripe is frequently 

detected in rice-growing countries 

(Shakya et al., 1985), but the disease 

is considered to have low epidemic 

potential (Cottyn et al., 1994). Losses 

are related to the inhibition of seed 

germination and to seedling damage in 

nursery boxes adapted to mechanized 

transplanters (Goto et al., 1988). 

In Kharif 1999, bacterial leaf blight 

(BLB) appeared in epidemic form in 

districts of Punjab where rice cv. Pusa- 

44 was predominant and suffered about 

30% yield loss (http:// 

www.tifac.org.in/itsap/disease.htm). 

The dominant strains in Madhya 

Pradesh belong to the pathotype 1 

group (Sahu and Sahu, 1988). 

Pathogenic variability was noted 

among all the 24 isolates tested at 

CRRI, Cuttack (Tembhurnikar, 1989). 

At CRRI, Cuttack, using differential 

hosts, BLB isolates were grouped into 

six pathotypes. Pathotyping of 241 

isolates collected from four different 

states in eastern India revealed the 


55

Pathogen 


Xanthomonas 

oryzae pv. 

oryzicola (Fang et 

al.) Swings et al. 

Bacterial leaf 

streak 

Fungi 

Cochliobolus 

miyabeanus (Ito & 



Seed 

Seed 

Bengal (Bradbury, 

1986; Ghose et al., 

1987; Gupta and 

Choudhury, 1988; 

Tikoo et al., 1987; 

Reddy and Reddy, 

1987; CAB 


Bihar, Karnataka, 


Maharashtra, Uttar 



Bengal (CAB 




Oryza sativa 

Oryza sativa 


existence of 20 different pathotypes. 

Also, pathogen diversity was clearly 

partitioned according to the site of 

collection using DNA markers. A total 

of 15 lineages were detected. The 

populations examined from Orissa and 

Raipur were much diverse as they 

consisted of 8 and 7 out of 15 lineages, 

respectively, as compared to those from 

Uttar Pradesh. Collections from a given 

site tended to consist of related 

haplotypes (http://crri.nic.in/ 

Pathology.htm).Natural enemy 

reported is Pseudomonas fluorescens 


Bacterial leaf streak is much less 

important than BLB, generally 

occurring in some areas during very 

wet seasons and where high rates of 

nitrogen fertilizer are used. High grain 

losses due to the disease are therefore 

rare, because plants have time to 

recover after a disease outbreak. 

Losses of up to 30% have been 

reported in India, but losses are 

generally lower (Ou, 1985). 

The disease causes blight of seedlings 

grown from heavily infected seeds. The 


Pathogen 


Kurib.) 

Drechsler ex 

Dastur 

Brown leaf spot 

Gibberella 

fujikuroi (Sawada) 

S. Ito 

Bakanae disease 



Seed 



Bihar, Chattisgarh, 


Pradesh, Orissa, 





Nadu, Tripura, Uttar 



Bengal (Saini, 1985; 


1987; Gupta and 

Choudhury, 1988; 

Gupta et al., 1992; 

Naim Uddin and 

Rama Chakraverty, 

1994) 




Gujarat, Himachal 






Rajasthan, Uttar 


Gossypium, Leucaena leucocephala, 

Lycopersicon esculentum, Musa, Oryza 

sativa, Pinus, Saccharum officinarum, 

Sorghum bicolor, Vigna unguiculata, Zea 

mays 

disease reduced the number of tillers 

and inhibited root and shoot elongation 

and severe infection reduced both yield 

(20-40%) and quality (Vidyasekaran 

and Ramadoss, 1973). 

Rice isolates of C. miyabeanus 

obtained from different parts of Brazil 

varied in growth on culture media, 

incubation temperature, fungicide 

sensitivity and sectoring (Artigiani and 

Bedendo, 1996). Non-sporulating 

isolates grew better than the 

sporulating isolates in almost all media 

containing different sources of carbon, 

nitrogen and amino acids (Diaz and 

Bedendo, 1999). 

Natural enemies reported are 

Arachnula impatiens, Bacillus 

megaterium, B. subtilis, Vampyrella 

vorax, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae 


Pavgi and Singh (1964) stated that 

losses of 15% occurred in eastern 

districts of Uttar Pradesh, India. 

Nisikado and Matsumoto (1933) 

reported that among 66 strains of G. 

fujikuroi obtained from rice and five 

strains of G. moniliformis var. majus, 

there were marked differences in 

pathogenicity as indicated by the 

degree of overgrowth. Four 


57

Pathogen 


Magnaporthe 

grisea (Hebert) 

Barr 

Blast 





Bengal (Pavgi and 

Singh, 1964; Singh 

and Srivastava, 1989; 


2005) 

Seed Andaman and Nicobar 




Bihar, Chattisgarh, 

Gujarat, Himachal 











Bengal (Reddy and 

Reddy, 1987) 

Oryza sativa 


antagonistic bacteria, designated as B- 

916, 91-2, A-2 and A-3, used in seed 

soaking gave good control of bakanae 

and significantly increased yield (Lu 

et al., 1999). 

Blast is one of the most destructive 

diseases of rice and yield loss can be 

as high as 50% when the disease occurs 

in epidemic proportions. Many 

physiological races were reported from 

each country, Japan registered 34 

(Matsumoto et al., 1969), Taiwan 27 

(Chien, 1967), USA 16 (Latterell et al., 

1960; Atkins, 1962), India 31 

(Padmanabhan, 1965), the Philippines 

250 (Bandong and Ou, 1966; IRRI, 

1967, 1975) and Korea 18 (Lee and 

Cho, 1990), each country using 

different cultivars for race 

identification. 

Veeraraghavan and Dath (1976) found 

that only the race IC-17 was prevalent 

in India. This was the predominant race 

among the 31 reported by 

Padmanabhan et al. (1970). 

Recent molecular genetic studies 

indicate that Pyricularia grisea, the 

anamorph of Magnaporthe grisea 

exists as a number of genetically 


Pathogen 





distinct clonal (asexually reproducing) 

populations occurring as a result of 

strong selection to maintain host 

specificity and perhaps geographic 

isolation (Shull and Hamer, 1994). 

However, sexual recombination has 

been reported to occur in wild 

populations in South and South-East 

Asia (Zeigler, 1998) and parasexual 

recombination has been demonstrated 

in field populations (Zeigler et al., 

1997). 

Examination of MGR586 DNAfingerprint 

diversity of a collection of 

P. grisea from the United States 

identified eight lineages (Levy et al., 

1991; Xia et al., 1993). 

The population genetics of M. grisea 

were analyzed in a center of rice 

diversity (the Uttar Pradesh hills of the 

Indian Himalayas) using multilocus 

and single-, or low-copy DNA markers. 

It was observed that Himalayan M. 

grisea populations are diverse and 

dynamic and the structure of some 

populations may be affected to some 

extent by sexual recombination 

(Kumar et al., 1999).Natural enemies 

reported are Acidovorax avenae subsp. 

avenae (bacterial leaf blight), 

Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus ear rot), 

Trichoderma harzianum, T. koningii, 


59

Pathogen 


Sarocladium 

oryzae (Sawada) 

W. Gams & D. 

Hawksw. 

Sheath rot 



Seed 
















Reddy 1987; CAB 


Oryza rufipogon, 

O. sativa 


T. pseudokoningii (CAB International, 

2005). 

The disease caused upto 57% loss in 

South India (Mohan and Subramanian, 

1978) and in West Bengal, Chakravarty 

and Biswas (1978) reported yield 

losses of 10-26% (average estimate of 

14%). In the Punjab, averages of 30% 

disease incidence and 70% disease 

severity, with 15-35% grain chaffiness 

were reported. In severe cases, 100% 

seed sterility and no panicle emergence 

were observed (Raina and Singh, 

1980). In 1982, sheath rot caused 

losses of upto 50% (Kang and Rattan, 

1983). Severe sheath rot infection was 

observed to affect the number of filled 

spikelets, the quality of rice grains, the 

1000-grain weight, seed germination 

percentage and the protein content of 

grains (Vidhyasekaran et al., 1984). 

Reduction in sheath rot disease index 

due to treatment with Pseudomonas 

fluorescens was reported to vary from 

32 to 42% in the five rice cultivars 

tested, with corresponding yield 

increases of 3-62% (Sakthivel and 

Gnanamanickam, 1987). 

Natural enemies reported are Bipolaris 

zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] P. 

fluorescens and culture filtrates of B. 


Pathogen 


Sphaerulina 

oryzina Hara 

Narrow brown leaf 

spot 

Thanatephorus 

cucumeris (Frank) 

Donk 

Sheath blight 



Seed 

Seed 

Karnataka, Tamil 


(including 

Uttaranchal) (Sanne- 

Gowda et al., 1973; 

Kannaiyan,1979; 

Singh, 1988; CAB 






Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, 



Oryza sativa 


Arachis hypogaea, Beta vulgaris var. 

saccharifera, Brassica napus var. napus, 

B.oleracea var. botrytis, B. oleracea var. 

capitata, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Capsicum 

annuum, Citrus , Cucumis sativus, , Daucus 

carota, Elaeis guineensis, Glycine max, 

Hordeum vulgare, Lactuca sativa, Lupinus, 

zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] 

completely inhibited mycelial growth 

of S. oryzae (Viswanathan and 

Narayanasamy, 1990). 

Narrow brown leaf spot was of 

significant concern in the USA in the 

1930s and 1940s because of the high 

degree of susceptibility in some 

commercial cultivars (Ou, 1985). The 

disease may cause severe damage to 

susceptible varieties by reducing the 

green surface area of leaves, resulting 

in death of the leaves and sheaths 

(Misra et al., 1994). The disease has a 

low economic impact when resistant 

cultivars are used, but in the US, new 

cultivars become susceptible within 3- 

4 years of release (Groth et al., 1990). 

Many physiological races have been 

identified on the basis of reactions on 

differential varieties of rice (Padwick, 

1950; Estrada et al., 1981; Sah and 

Rush, 1988). 

Field experiments during the rainy 

seasons of 1986 and 1987 indicated 

that an increase of 1% in sheath blight 

incidence resulted in a 0.38% loss in 

grain yield (Saikia and Baruah, 1990). 

The losses due to sheath blight have 

been reported to vary from 5-13.5 % 


61

Pathogen 








Nagaland, Orissa, 




(including 



Reddy, 1987; Bilgrami 

et al., 1991) 


Lycopersicon esculentum, Manihot 

esculenta, Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa, 

Oxalis tuberosa, Phaseolus, Raphanus 

sativus, Solanum melongena, S. tuberosum, 

Sorghum bicolor, Trifolium, Triticum, T. 

aestivum, Tulipa, Ullucus tuberosus, Vigna 

radiata, V. unguiculata, Zea mays 

in Punjab (http://www.tifac.org.in/ 

itsap/disease.htm). Chien and Chung 

(1963) studied 300 isolates from 

Taiwan, inoculated on 16 rice cultivars. 

Based on the degree of pathogenicity, 

they classified the 300 isolates into 7 

cultural types and 6 physiologic races. 

Isolates differing in virulence were also 

reported by Tsai (1973) among 40 

single basidiospore cultures, and by 

Haque (1975) among 25 field isolates, 

but no distinct differential reaction was 

noticed. 

Although earlier studies suggested that 

AG-1 IA represented a homogeneous 

group of isolates, recent investigations 

support the hypothesis that the sheath 

blight pathogen is far more diverse than 

previously assumed. Knowledge of 

field populations of this pathogen is 

still scarce, particularly in tropical 

agroecosystems (Banniza et al., 1999). 

Natural enemies reported are protozoa, 

nematodes, Collembola, earthworms, 

mycoparasitic fungi including 

Fusarium spp., Gliocladium spp., 

Pythium spp., Trichoderma spp., 

Verticillium spp. and bacterial 

antagonists such as Pseudomonas spp., 

and Actinomycetes (CAB 



Pathogen 


Ustilaginoidea 

virens (Cke.) Tak. 

False smut 




Seed Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa False smut has been considered a minor 


disease, but sporadic severe incidences 


have been reported that cause losses 


because grain weight decreases as a 


result of the number of smutted balls 

Karnataka, 

that replace grains per panicle (Singh 

Maharashtra, 

and Dube, 1978). In India, losses varied 


from 7 to 75% (Agarwal and Verma 


1981). In Uttar Pradesh, yield losses 


upto 44% were observed by Singh and 


Dube (1978). In Punjab, yield losses 

Uttaranchal) (Tyagi 

upto 16.8% were reported (Dhindsa et 

and Sharma, 1978; 

al., 1991). 

Singh, 1984; Sharma 

This disease reduced the yield of the 

and Chaudhury, 1986; 

cv. Mashuri by 9.2% by increasing 


numbers of chaffy grains and 

1987) 

decreasing grain weight. It may 

become economically important under 

favourable conditions (Baruah et al., 

1992). 


63

64 DOCUMENT SECTION IX - ON STATUS BIOLOGY OF TRANSGENIC OF RICE (ORYZA RICE SATIVA IN INDIA 

L.) IN INDIA 

SECTION IX - STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA 

The ever-increasing human population especially in the developing countries and various biotic 

and abiotic stresses has posed a challenge to boost the rice production in a limited cultivated land. 

Genetically engineered plants with genes expressing desirable traits can be produced in a relatively 

short time with more precision and can be of direct value in the agri-food industry. 

More recent applications of biotechnology to rice breeding, particularly genetic transformation 

of rice, was started in late 1980s. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, particle gun 

bombardment and Agrobacterium have been used to mediate gene transfer. Among these, PEG 

has had only limited use in recent years. Electroporation directly introduces foreign genes into the 

protoplasts. Improvement in efficiency and stability of regeneration from protoplasts to plantlets 

is another factor contributing to the development of this method. The biolistic (particle gun 

bombardment) method directly introduces foreign genes into regenerable plant cells such as 

scutellum cells. The main merit of this method is that it eliminates the problems of regeneration 

from protoplasts and minimizes the possibility of the occurrence of somaclonal variation during 

the regeneration process. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in rice has also been employed 

successfully. Its main merit includes insertion of a more precise gene construct, including promoters 

and marker genes on the plasmids, which results in the improved efficiency of gene introduction 

as well as more stable expression and inheritance of the transgenes. 

After the introduction of foreign genes into rice plant tissue, a suitable selection system is 

required to select plants that have been successfully transformed. In the case of rice, selectable 

markers usually constitute genes that confer resistance to antibiotics. Among them, kanamycin 

was used in early stages, but most of the recent successful results of rice transformation have been 

obtained using hygromycin and geneticin (G418) due to their more efficient and stable function in 

selection procedures. 

Several agronomically important genes have been introduced into rice to improve resistance/ 

tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses using various available transformation methods. Mohanty 

et al. (1999) reported Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of an elite indica rice variety Pusa 

Basmati 1 using the gene construct having npt II gene for hygromycin resistance and gus gene 

encoding β-D-glucuronidase. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of other indica varieties is 

also under progress. 

Two Bt rice transgenic varieties of IR64 and Pusa Basmati 1 using the gene constructs cry 

1Ac have been developed by Khanna and Raina in 2002. These transgenic rice plants expressed 

modified endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis and showed enhanced resistance to yellow stem 

borer (Scirpophaga incertulas). The evaluation of generated rice transgenic lines, in particular 

the bioassays along with the field evaluations were undertaken successfully (Annual Report 2002- 

2003; NRC on Plant Biotechnology, Raina et al., 2002). It is expected that transformed rice plants 

with modified/desired traits will be released in near future, supported by developments both in 

basic genome research and in transformation technologies in India. 

Carefully planned commercialization and monitoring of transgenic crops after evaluation of 

potential risks would be required to sustain biodiversity and to harness the benefits of these crops.

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